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<document ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3716509" ID-GBIF-Dataset="537947b6-ac91-43f9-9990-7c424660b3f1" ID-GBIF-Taxon="162488068" ID-ISSN="1982-0224" ID-Zenodo-Dep="3716509" checkinTime="1584124410113" checkinUser="carolina" docAuthor="Hilton, Eric J. &amp; Lavoué, Sébastien" docDate="2018" docId="03C3878DFFF6B310FF4FFCD925C64C87" docLanguage="en" docName="NeotropIchthyol.16.3.e180031.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Neotropical Ichthyology 16 (3)" docStyle="DocumentStyle:7EA6CBAC9B92AC526D6A0354C904CC04.2:NeotropIchthyol.2014-2015.journal_article" docStyleId="7EA6CBAC9B92AC526D6A0354C904CC04" docStyleName="NeotropIchthyol.2014-2015.journal_article" docStyleVersion="2" docTitle="Osteoglossidae Bonaparte 1831" docType="treatment" docVersion="5" lastPageId="10" lastPageNumber="11" masterDocId="FFFAFFF5FFFEB31AFFE1FF8821214A21" masterDocTitle="A review of the systematic biology of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes, Osteoglossomorpha (Actinopterygii: Teleostei)" masterLastPageNumber="35" masterPageNumber="1" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" updateTime="1643466504853" updateUser="ExternalLinkService" zenodo-license-document="CC-BY-4.0">
<mods:mods xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>A review of the systematic biology of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes, Osteoglossomorpha (Actinopterygii: Teleostei)</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Hilton, Eric J.</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Lavoué, Sébastien</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
<mods:relatedItem type="host">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Neotropical Ichthyology</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:part>
<mods:date>2018</mods:date>
<mods:detail type="pubDate">
<mods:number>2018-10-11</mods:number>
</mods:detail>
<mods:detail type="volume">
<mods:number>16</mods:number>
</mods:detail>
<mods:detail type="issue">
<mods:number>3</mods:number>
</mods:detail>
<mods:extent unit="page">
<mods:start>1</mods:start>
<mods:end>35</mods:end>
</mods:extent>
</mods:part>
</mods:relatedItem>
<mods:classification>journal article</mods:classification>
<mods:identifier type="DOI">10.1590/1982-0224-20180031</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="GBIF-Dataset">537947b6-ac91-43f9-9990-7c424660b3f1</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ISSN">1982-0224</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="Zenodo-Dep">3709903</mods:identifier>
</mods:mods>
<treatment ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3716509" ID-GBIF-Taxon="162488068" ID-Zenodo-Dep="3716509" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03C3878DFFF6B310FF4FFCD925C64C87" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C3878DFFF6B310FF4FFCD925C64C87" lastPageId="10" lastPageNumber="11" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<subSubSection box="[174,348,849,873]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph blockId="8.[136,776,849,1961]" box="[174,348,849,873]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<heading box="[174,341,849,873]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[174,341,849,873]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">
<emphasis bold="true" box="[174,341,849,873]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Osteoglossidae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="10" lastPageNumber="11" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="description">
<paragraph blockId="8.[136,776,849,1961]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Outside of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[468,604,849,873]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Mormyridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Mormyridae</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[613,774,849,873]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
is the most diverse family of Osteoglossomorpha, with four extant genera, classified in two subfamilies (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[605,771,913,937]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
, including
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1829" box="[244,394,945,969]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[244,394,945,969]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Osteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from South America and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from Southeast Asia and
<collectingCountry box="[449,550,977,1001]" name="Australia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Australia</collectingCountry>
, and Arapaiminae (=
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[136,283,1009,1033]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Heterotidinae">Heterotidinae</taxonomicName>
) including
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[406,504,1010,1033]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[406,504,1010,1033]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from Africa and
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from South America). In all osteoglossids, the large, cycloid scales are reticulate, with a network of furrows across the entire surface of the scales (mormyroids have reticulate furrows on just the posterior field of the scale, with welldeveloped radii on the anterior field; see
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[587,727,1169,1193]" firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="1 - 100" refId="ref22345" refString="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2003; 137 (1): 1 - 100. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1096 - 3642.2003.00032. x" type="journal article" year="2003">Hilton, 2003</bibRefCitation>
: fig. 39). These furrows define so-called squamules, which have been recovered in the fossil record (
<bibRefCitation author="Gayet, Meunier" box="[529,770,1233,1257]" firstAuthor="Gayet" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="867 - 70" refId="ref21693" refString="Gayet M, Meunier FJ. Ecailles actuelles et fossiles d'Osteoglossiformes (Pisces, Teleostei). C R Acad Sci II. 1983; 297 (13): 867 - 70." type="journal article" year="1983">Gayet, Meunier, 1983</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[136,358,1265,1289]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="89 - 97" refId="ref28383" refString="Taverne L, Nolf D, Folie A. On the presence of the osteoglossid fish genus Scleropages (Teleostei, Osteoglossiformes) in the continental Paleocene of Hainin (Mons Basin, Belgium). Belg J Zool. 2007; 137 (1): 89 - 97." type="journal article" year="2007">
Taverne
<emphasis box="[230,286,1265,1289]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2007
</bibRefCitation>
). The crown-group osteoglossids have elongate, posteriorly positioned dorsal and anal fins (these are longer in
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1829" box="[292,442,1329,1353]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[292,442,1329,1353]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Osteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
than in
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" box="[542,671,1329,1353]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[542,671,1329,1353]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), a short caudal peduncle, and a large rounded caudal fin.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="8.[136,776,849,1961]" lastBlockId="8.[820,1460,176,1961]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[174,335,1393,1417]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
(
<figureCitation box="[354,422,1393,1417]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="9.[129,168,1350,1374]" captionTargetBox="[129,1452,174,1333]" captionTargetId="figure@9.[129,1452,174,1333]" captionTargetPageId="9" captionText="Fig. 8. Osteoglossinae. a. Osteoglossum bicirhossum (UF 189007; 260 mm SL; photo by Z. Randall). b. Scleropages formosus (aquarium specimen; photo by Z. Randall)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709920" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709920/files/figure.png" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Fig. 8</figureCitation>
) have laterally compressed bodies and large, dorsally directed mouths with elongate lower jaws. Two barbels extend from the anterior tip of the lower jaws, and in life these are held horizontally in the water column. Most remarkably are the large pectoral fins that have a long, very robust leading pectoral fin ray. These fin rays support the strong pectoral fins that contribute to the ability of these fishes to float at the surface while hunting prey and leap from the water to capture terrestrial invertebrate and vertebrate prey items above the water line (
<bibRefCitation author="Goulding" firstAuthor="Goulding" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" refId="ref21851" refString="Goulding M. The fishes and the forest: explorations in Amazonian natural history. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press; 1980." type="book" year="1980">Goulding, 1980</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Verba" box="[205,403,1713,1737]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Verba" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" refId="ref28704" refString="Verba JT, Borges MLO, Silva MNF, Pinto LC, Neto JGR. Mice on menu: opportunistic feeding behavior of the Amazonian silver arowana Osteoglossum bicirrhosum. J Fish Biol. Forthcoming 2018." type="book" year="2018">
Verba
<emphasis box="[275,324,1713,1737]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al</emphasis>
., 2018
</bibRefCitation>
). Adults of the two species of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1829" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Osteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are silver (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Cuvier" authorityYear="1829" box="[382,547,1745,1769]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicirrhosum">
<emphasis box="[382,547,1745,1769]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. bicirrhosum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) or greyish-steel (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Kanazawa" authorityYear="1966" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ferreirai">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. ferreirai</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) colored, the yolk-sac larvae of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Cuvier" authorityYear="1829" box="[573,735,1777,1801]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicirrhosum">
<emphasis box="[573,735,1777,1801]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. bicirrhosum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are silver whereas those of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Kanazawa" authorityYear="1966" box="[401,525,1809,1833]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ferreirai">
<emphasis box="[401,525,1809,1833]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. ferreirai</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, which is restricted to the Rio Negro, are black with a distinct yellow lateral stripe on the body. The species of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1829" box="[445,595,1873,1897]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[445,595,1873,1897]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Osteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are largely allopatric:
<taxonomicName authorityName="Cuvier" authorityYear="1829" box="[211,375,1905,1929]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicirrhosum">
<emphasis box="[211,375,1905,1929]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. bicirrhosum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is found throughout the Amazon and the Branco river basins, and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Kanazawa" authorityYear="1966" box="[444,566,1937,1961]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ferreirai">
<emphasis box="[444,566,1937,1961]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">O. ferreirai</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is found in the Rio Negro basin, including the Branco, and the Orinoco River, which was likely the result of an introduction (
<bibRefCitation author="Escobar" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Escobar" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="335 - 40" refId="ref21025" refString="Escobar L MD, Farias IP, Taphorn B DC, Landines M, Hrbek T. Molecular diagnosis of the arowanas Osteoglossum ferreirai Kanazawa, 1966 and O. bicirrhossum (Cuvier, 1829) from the Orinoco and Amazon River basins. Neotrop Ichthyol [serial on the Internet]. 2013; 11 (2): 335 - 40. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 1679 - 62252013000200011" type="journal article" year="2013">
Escobar
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2013
</bibRefCitation>
). Using a ~1,000 base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial genome,
<bibRefCitation author="Escobar" box="[1024,1245,272,297]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Escobar" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="335 - 40" refId="ref21025" refString="Escobar L MD, Farias IP, Taphorn B DC, Landines M, Hrbek T. Molecular diagnosis of the arowanas Osteoglossum ferreirai Kanazawa, 1966 and O. bicirrhossum (Cuvier, 1829) from the Orinoco and Amazon River basins. Neotrop Ichthyol [serial on the Internet]. 2013; 11 (2): 335 - 40. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 1679 - 62252013000200011" type="journal article" year="2013">
Escobar
<emphasis box="[1115,1161,272,296]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al</emphasis>
. (2013)
</bibRefCitation>
calculated a genetic distance of 8.9% between the two species.
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" box="[1269,1398,304,328]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1269,1398,304,328]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
comprises four species, two from Southeast Asia (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Muller &amp; Schlegel in Muller &amp; Schlegel" baseAuthorityYear="1840" box="[1331,1459,337,361]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="formosus">
<emphasis box="[1331,1459,337,361]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. formosus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from
<collectingCountry box="[882,975,368,392]" name="Vietnam" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry box="[989,1101,368,392]" name="Cambodia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Cambodia</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry box="[1115,1213,368,392]" name="Thailand" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Thailand</collectingCountry>
, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, and
<taxonomicName authorityName="T.R.Roberts" authorityYear="2012" box="[1104,1236,401,424]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="inscriptus">
<emphasis box="[1104,1236,401,424]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. inscriptus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from
<collectingCountry box="[1301,1406,401,425]" name="Myanmar" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Myanmar</collectingCountry>
) and two from
<collectingCountry box="[931,1029,432,456]" name="Australia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Australia</collectingCountry>
(
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Saville-Kent" baseAuthorityYear="1892" box="[1047,1157,432,456]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="jardinii">
<emphasis box="[1047,1157,432,456]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. jardinii</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from the coastal river systems of northern
<collectingCountry box="[1009,1107,464,488]" name="Australia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Australia</collectingCountry>
and
<collectingCountry box="[1164,1378,464,488]" name="Papua New Guinea" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Papua New Guinea</collectingCountry>
, and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Guenther" authorityYear="1864" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="leichardti">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. leichardti</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from the Fitzroy River basin).
<bibRefCitation author="Roberts" box="[1248,1407,496,521]" firstAuthor="Roberts" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="113 - 18" refId="ref26716" refString="Roberts TR. Scleropages inscriptus, a new fish species from the Tananthayi or Tenasserim River basin, Malay Peninsula of Myanmar (Osteoglossidae: Osteoglossiformes). Aqua. 2012; 18 (2): 113 - 18." type="journal article" year="2012">Roberts (2012)</bibRefCitation>
suggested the subgenus name
<taxonomicName authorityName="Fowler" authorityYear="1934" box="[1119,1235,528,552]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Delsmania" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1119,1235,528,552]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Delsmania</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
<bibRefCitation author="Fowler" box="[1245,1389,528,553]" firstAuthor="Fowler" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="233 - 67" refId="ref21348" refString="Fowler HW. Descriptions of new fishes obtained 1907 to 1910, chiefly in the Philippine Islands and adjacent seas. Proc Acad Nat Sci Phila [serial on the Internet]. 1933; 85: 233 - 67. Available from: https: // jstor. org / stable / 4064176" type="journal article" year="1933">Fowler, 1933</bibRefCitation>
could usefully be applied to the group containing
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Muller &amp; Schlegel in Muller &amp; Schlegel" baseAuthorityYear="1840" box="[1288,1413,561,585]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="formosus">
<emphasis box="[1288,1413,561,585]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. formosus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName authorityName="T.R.Roberts" authorityYear="2012" box="[820,955,593,616]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="inscriptus">
<emphasis box="[820,955,593,616]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. inscriptus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, with the two Australian species being in the subgenus
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" box="[925,1054,624,648]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[925,1054,624,648]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. The four species of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" box="[1274,1403,624,648]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1274,1403,624,648]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
have dramatic coloration and, at least in the case of
<taxonomicName authorityName="T.R.Roberts" authorityYear="2012" box="[1320,1452,657,680]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="inscriptus">
<emphasis box="[1320,1452,657,680]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. inscriptus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, patterning. Color variants oh
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Muller &amp; Schlegel in Muller &amp; Schlegel" baseAuthorityYear="1840" box="[1133,1257,689,713]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="formosus">
<emphasis box="[1133,1257,689,713]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. formosus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
have been suggested to be distinct species (
<bibRefCitation author="Pouyaud" box="[1110,1344,720,745]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Pouyaud" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="287 - 305" refId="ref26379" refString="Pouyaud L, Sudarto, Teugels GG. The different colour varieties of the Asian Arowana Scleropages formosus (Osteoglossidae) are distinct species: morphologic and genetic evidences. Cybium. 2003; 27 (4): 287 - 305." type="journal article" year="2003">
Pouyaud
<emphasis box="[1214,1271,720,744]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2003
</bibRefCitation>
), although these are not regarded as valid (
<bibRefCitation author="Kottelat, Widjanarti" box="[1168,1455,752,776]" firstAuthor="Kottelat" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="139 - 73" refId="ref23454" refString="Kottelat M, Widjanarti E. The fishes of Danau Sentarum National Park and the Kapuas Lakes area, Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia. Raffles Bull Zool. 2005; 13: 139 - 73." type="journal article" year="2005">Kottelat, Widjanarti, 2005</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Roberts" box="[820,974,784,809]" firstAuthor="Roberts" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="113 - 18" refId="ref26716" refString="Roberts TR. Scleropages inscriptus, a new fish species from the Tananthayi or Tenasserim River basin, Malay Peninsula of Myanmar (Osteoglossidae: Osteoglossiformes). Aqua. 2012; 18 (2): 113 - 18." type="journal article" year="2012">Roberts, 2012</bibRefCitation>
). A fossil species of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" box="[1187,1316,784,808]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1187,1316,784,808]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName box="[1342,1452,785,808]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sinensis">
<emphasis box="[1342,1452,785,808]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">S. sinensis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, has been recently described from the Early Eocene Xiwanpu and Yangxi formations of
<collectingCountry box="[1098,1162,848,872]" name="China" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">China</collectingCountry>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang J-Y &amp; Wilson MVH" box="[1176,1406,848,873]" journalOrPublisher="Vert PalAs." pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="1 - 23" part="55" refId="ref29659" refString="Zhang J-Y, Wilson MVH. First complete fossil Scleropages (Osteoglossomorpha). Vert PalAs. 2017; 55 (1): 1 - 23." title="First complete fossil Scleropages (Osteoglossomorpha)" type="journal article" year="2017">Zhang, Wilson, 2017</bibRefCitation>
). Several additional fossil taxa have been interpreted as being close to
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[915,1079,912,936]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
, if not within the subfamily itself, including †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Daniltshenko" authorityYear="1968" box="[959,1106,944,968]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Opsithrissops" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[959,1106,944,968]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Opsithrissops</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1845" box="[1150,1270,944,968]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Brychaetus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1150,1270,944,968]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Brychaetus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Taverne" authorityYear="1979" box="[1314,1452,944,968]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Foreyichthyidae" genus="Foreyichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1314,1452,944,968]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Foreyichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[833,1036,976,1000]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Heterosteoglossum" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[833,1036,976,1000]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Heterosteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(see
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[1096,1253,977,1001]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="67 - 158" refId="ref28114" refString="Taverne L. Les Osteoglossomorphes marins de. l'Eocene du Monte Bolca (Italie): Monopteros Volta 1796, Thrissopterus Heckel, 1856 et Foreyichthys Taverne, 1979. Considerations sur la phylogenie des Teleosteens osteoglossomorphes. Stud Ric Giacimenti Terziari Bolca. 1998; 7: 67 - 158." type="journal article" year="1998">Taverne, 1998</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[1266,1408,976,1001]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
; and
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[820,1031,1008,1033]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
for discussion of these and other fossil osteoglossid taxa). Although it bears an elongate lower jaw similar to that of osteoglossids, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[1174,1290,1072,1096]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Furichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1174,1290,1072,1096]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Furichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, from the Early Eocene of
<collectingCountry box="[933,1035,1104,1128]" name="Denmark" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Denmark</collectingCountry>
, has been interpreted as stem-group Osteoglossi (=
<taxonomicName authorityName="Regan" authorityYear="1909" box="[960,1159,1136,1160]" class="Actinopterygii" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="order">Osteoglossiformes</taxonomicName>
+
<taxonomicName box="[1194,1368,1136,1160]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Mormyriformes</taxonomicName>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="8.[820,1460,176,1961]" lastBlockId="9.[129,768,1462,1966]" lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="10" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Arapaiminae comprises two genera of extant fishes (
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[947,1045,1233,1256]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[947,1045,1233,1256]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
;
<figureCitation box="[1063,1130,1232,1257]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="10.[136,175,889,913]" captionTargetBox="[136,1459,174,873]" captionTargetId="figure@10.[136,1459,174,873]" captionTargetPageId="10" captionText="Fig. 9. Arapaiminae. a. Arapaima sp. (VIMS 38993; 120 mm SL). b. Heterotis niloticus (CU 95903); Scale bar = 2 cm." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709922" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709922/files/figure.png" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Fig. 9</figureCitation>
) and putatively several fossil taxa, including †
<emphasis box="[1000,1126,1264,1288]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Joffrichthys</emphasis>
from the Paleocene of
<collectingCountry box="[1379,1459,1264,1288]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Canada</collectingCountry>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" box="[828,1023,1296,1320]" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="198 - 209" refId="ref24494" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. The discovery of Heterotidinae (Teleostei: Osteoglossidae) from the Paleocene paskapoo formation of Alberta, Canada. J Vertebr Paleontol [serial on the Internet]. 1996 b. 16 (2): 198 - 209. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 02724634.1996.10011308" type="journal article" year="1996" yearSuffix="b">Li, Wilson, 1996b</bibRefCitation>
), †
<emphasis box="[1054,1186,1297,1320]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Trissopterus</emphasis>
, from the Eocene of
<collectingCountry box="[1405,1455,1296,1320]" name="Italy" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Italy</collectingCountry>
, and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Su Dezao" authorityYear="1986" box="[882,1008,1328,1352]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Actinopterygii (awaiting allocation)" genus="Sinoglossus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Actinopterygii (awaiting allocation)" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[882,1008,1328,1352]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Sinoglossus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from the Eocene of
<collectingCountry box="[1240,1304,1328,1352]" name="China" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">China</collectingCountry>
(although see
<bibRefCitation author="Murray" box="[820,1031,1360,1385]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Murray" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="907 - 44" refId="ref25579" refString="Murray AM, Zelenitsky DK, Brinkman DB, Neuman AG. Two new Palaeocene osteoglossomorphs from Canada, with a reassessment of the relationships of the genus Joffrichthys, and analysis of diversity from articulated versus microfossil material. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2018; 183 (4): 907 - 44. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1093 / zoolinnean / zlx 100" type="journal article" year="2018">
Murray
<emphasis box="[907,962,1360,1384]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2018
</bibRefCitation>
, who found †
<emphasis box="[1178,1304,1360,1384]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Joffrichthys</emphasis>
to be a potential stem osteoglossiform).
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[1109,1215,1393,1416]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1109,1215,1393,1416]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, because of the unique configuration of its occipital region (
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[1207,1405,1424,1449]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="218 - 24" refId="ref22597" refString="Hilton EJ, Britz R, Johnson GD, Foley PL. Clarification of the Occipito- Vertebral region of Arapaima gigas (Osteoglossomorpha: Osteoglossidae) through developmental osteology. Copeia. 2007; 2007 (1): 218 - 24." type="journal article" year="2007">
Hilton
<emphasis box="[1283,1336,1424,1448]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2007
</bibRefCitation>
), has been identified in the fossil record based on isolated basiocciptal/vertebral elements (
<bibRefCitation author="Lundberg, Chernoff" box="[1096,1378,1488,1513]" firstAuthor="Lundberg" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="2 - 14" refId="ref24788" refString="Lundberg JG, Chernoff B. A Miocene fossil of the Amazonian fish Arapaima (Teleostei, Arapaimidae) from the Magdalena River region of Colombia-Biogeographic and evolutionary implication. Biotropica [serial on the Internet]. 1992; 24 (1): 2 - 14. Available from: https: // www. jstor. org / stable / 2388468" type="journal article" year="1992">Lundberg, Chernoff, 1992</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Gayet, Meunier" firstAuthor="Gayet" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="85 - 110" refId="ref21727" refString="Gayet M, Meunier FJ. Maastrichtian to early late Paleocene freshwater Osteichthyes of Bolivia: additions and comments. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, Lucena ZMS, Lucena CAS, editors. Phylogeny and classification of Neotropical fishes. Porto Alegre: Edipucrs; 1998. p. 85 - 110." type="book chapter" year="1998">Gayet, Meunier, 1998</bibRefCitation>
).
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[1003,1109,1521,1544]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1003,1109,1521,1544]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
has long been considered to be a widespread monotypic genus, with only
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schinz in Schinz" baseAuthorityYear="1822" box="[1295,1386,1553,1576]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="gigas">
<emphasis box="[1295,1386,1553,1576]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. gigas</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
found throughout the Amazon basin.
<bibRefCitation author="Stewart" box="[1145,1309,1584,1609]" firstAuthor="Stewart" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="38 - 51" refId="ref27235" refString="Stewart DJ. Re-description of Arapaima agassizii (Valenciennes), a rare fish from Brazil (Osteoglossomorpha: Osteoglossidae). Copeia. 2013 a; 2013 (1): 38 - 51." type="journal article" year="2013" yearSuffix="a">Stewart (2013a</bibRefCitation>
,b) argued that four nominal species and a new species should be recognized (
<taxonomicName box="[829,964,1649,1672]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="arapaima">
<emphasis box="[829,964,1649,1672]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName box="[980,1098,1649,1672]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="agassizi">
<emphasis box="[980,1098,1649,1672]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. agassizi</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Valenciennes" baseAuthorityYear="1847" box="[1114,1217,1649,1672]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="mapae">
<emphasis box="[1114,1217,1649,1672]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. mapae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schinz in Schinz" baseAuthorityYear="1822" box="[1233,1323,1649,1672]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="gigas">
<emphasis box="[1233,1323,1649,1672]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. gigas</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Stewart" authorityYear="2013" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="leptosoma">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. leptosoma</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
).
<bibRefCitation author="Stewart" box="[921,1093,1681,1705]" firstAuthor="Stewart" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="38 - 51" refId="ref27235" refString="Stewart DJ. Re-description of Arapaima agassizii (Valenciennes), a rare fish from Brazil (Osteoglossomorpha: Osteoglossidae). Copeia. 2013 a; 2013 (1): 38 - 51." type="journal article" year="2013" yearSuffix="a">Stewart (2013a)</bibRefCitation>
further suggested that
<taxonomicName box="[1342,1459,1681,1704]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="agassizi">
<emphasis box="[1342,1459,1681,1704]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. agassizi</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
had no known specimens and had not been collected for 190 years, and that
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Valenciennes" baseAuthorityYear="1847" box="[978,1078,1745,1768]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="mapae">
<emphasis box="[978,1078,1745,1768]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. mapae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schinz in Schinz" baseAuthorityYear="1822" box="[1127,1214,1745,1768]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="gigas">
<emphasis box="[1127,1214,1745,1768]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">A. gigas</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
were only known from their
<typeStatus box="[876,983,1776,1800]" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">holotypes</typeStatus>
. Several studies have found moderate to low population genetic structure across the range of the genus at various scales (
<bibRefCitation author="Araripe" box="[1010,1224,1840,1865]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Araripe" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="54470" refId="ref18469" refString="Araripe J, do Rego PS, Queiroz H, Sampaio I, Schneider H. Dispersal capacity and genetic structure of Arapaima gigas on different geographic scales using microsatellite markers. PLoS One [serial on the Internet]. 2013; 8 (1): e 54470. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0054470" type="journal article" year="2013">
Araripe
<emphasis box="[1101,1155,1840,1864]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2013
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Watson" box="[1236,1448,1840,1865]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Watson" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="864 - 72" refId="ref29080" refString="Watson LC, Stewart DJ, Kretzer AM. Genetic diversity and population structure of the threatened giant Arapaima in southwestern Guyana: implications for their conservation. Copeia. 2013; 104 (4): 864 - 72." type="journal article" year="2013">
Watson
<emphasis box="[1322,1377,1840,1864]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2013
</bibRefCitation>
). Most range-wide structure appears to be associated with distance between populations (
<bibRefCitation author="Hrbek" box="[1116,1315,1904,1928]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Hrbek" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" pagination="297 - 308" refId="ref22731" refString="Hrbek T, Farias IP, Crossa M, Sampaio I, Porto JIR, Meyer A. Population genetic analysis of Arapaima gigas, one of the largest freshwater fishes of the Amazon basin: implications for its conservation. Anim Conserv [serial on the Internet]. 2005; 8 (3): 297 - 308. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 1367943005002210" type="journal article" year="2005">
Hrbek
<emphasis box="[1191,1245,1904,1928]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="9">et al.</emphasis>
, 2005
</bibRefCitation>
), and low genetic diversity within smaller portions of its range is suggestive of overfishing (
<emphasis box="[341,372,1462,1485]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">e.g</emphasis>
., Araguaia-Tocantins basin;
<bibRefCitation author="Vitorino" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Vitorino" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="1 - 10" refId="ref28976" refString="Vitorino CA, Nogueira F, Souza IL, Araripe J, Venere PC. Low genetic diversity and structuring of the Arapaima (Osteoglossiformes, Arapaimidae) population of the Araguaia- Tocantins Basin. Front Genet [serial on the Internet]. 2017; 8 (159): 1 - 10. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.3389 / fgene. 2017.00159" type="journal article" year="2017">
Vitorino
<emphasis box="[129,181,1493,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">et al.</emphasis>
, 2017
</bibRefCitation>
).
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Cuvier in Cuvier" baseAuthorityYear="1829" box="[268,464,1493,1517]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="niloticus">
<emphasis box="[268,464,1493,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Heterotis niloticus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is distributed throughout the Nilo-Sudanese region of Africa from
<collectingCountry box="[545,635,1526,1550]" name="Ethiopia" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Ethiopia</collectingCountry>
to
<collectingCountry box="[676,763,1526,1550]" name="Senegal" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Senegal</collectingCountry>
, the
<collectingCountry box="[168,224,1558,1582]" name="Chad" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Chad</collectingCountry>
basin, and Lake Turkana; it has been widely introduced in central and western Africa and is regionally extinct in the upper Egyptian Nile (
<bibRefCitation accessDate="invalid" author="Akinyi" box="[427,636,1621,1646]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Akinyi" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="e. T 182580 A 7920022" refId="ref18238" refString="Akinyi E, Azeroual A, Entsua-Mensah M, Getahun A, Laleye P, Moelants T. Heterotis niloticus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2018 Mar 09]: e. T 182580 A 7920022. Available from: http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2305 / IUCN. UK. 2010 - 3. RLTS. T 182580 A 7920022. en" title="Heterotis niloticus" type="journal article" volumeTitle="The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [Internet]" year="2010">
Akinyi
<emphasis box="[510,558,1621,1645]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">et al</emphasis>
., 2010
</bibRefCitation>
). In contrast to
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[155,261,1654,1677]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[155,261,1654,1677]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, there is genetic structure of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[565,663,1654,1677]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[565,663,1654,1677]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, even within relatively small portions of their range (
<emphasis box="[625,656,1686,1709]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">e.g</emphasis>
.,
<bibRefCitation author="Hurtado" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Hurtado" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="682 - 90" refId="ref22997" refString="Hurtado LA, Carrera E, Adite A, Winemiller KO. Genetic differentiation of a primitive teleost, the African bonytongue Heterotis niloticus, among river basins and within a floodplain river system in Benin, West Africa. J Fish Biol [serial on the Internet]. 2013; 83 (3): 682 - 90. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / jfb. 12198" type="journal article" year="2013">
Hurtado
<emphasis box="[129,183,1717,1741]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">et al.</emphasis>
, 2013
</bibRefCitation>
, found significant genetic differentiation between three river basins in
<collectingCountry box="[382,450,1750,1774]" name="Benin" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Benin</collectingCountry>
).
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[469,575,1750,1773]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[469,575,1750,1773]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[629,727,1750,1773]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[629,727,1750,1773]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are broadly regarded as sister taxa, supported by genetics and several morphological characters (enlarged first infraorbital bone, divided first infrapharyngobranchial, and having the angular, articular, and retroarticular all unfused in the adult [otherwise seen only in †
<emphasis box="[396,510,1909,1933]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Phareodus</emphasis>
];
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[533,672,1910,1934]" firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="1 - 100" refId="ref22345" refString="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2003; 137 (1): 1 - 100. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1096 - 3642.2003.00032. x" type="journal article" year="2003">Hilton, 2003</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709920" ID-Zenodo-Dep="3709920" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709920/files/figure.png" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" startId="9.[129,168,1350,1374]" targetBox="[129,1452,174,1333]" targetPageId="9">
<paragraph blockId="9.[129,1452,1350,1406]" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">
<emphasis bold="true" box="[129,199,1350,1374]" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Fig. 8.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[205,370,1350,1374]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
.
<emphasis bold="true" box="[380,393,1351,1375]" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">a</emphasis>
.
<taxonomicName box="[406,692,1350,1374]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicirhossum">
<emphasis box="[406,692,1350,1374]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Osteoglossum bicirhossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(UF 189007; 260 mm SL; photo by Z. Randall).
<emphasis bold="true" box="[1215,1236,1351,1375]" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">b.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Muller &amp; Schlegel in Muller &amp; Schlegel" baseAuthorityYear="1840" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="formosus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Scleropages formosus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(aquarium specimen; photo by Z. Randall).
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph blockId="9.[129,768,1462,1966]" lastBlockId="10.[136,775,974,1958]" lastPageId="10" lastPageNumber="11" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">
As a taxonomic aside,
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[417,583,1942,1966]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="1 - 168" refId="ref28048" refString="Taverne L. Osteologie, phylogenese et systematique des teleosteens fossiles et actuels du super ordre des Osteoglossomorphes. Troisieme partie. Evolution des structures osteologiques et conclusions generales relatives a la phylogenese et a la systematique du super ordre. Acad Roy Belg Mem Cl Sci. 1979; 43 (3): 1 - 168. (Collection 8, Serie 2)" type="journal article" year="1979">Taverne (1979)</bibRefCitation>
named two subfamilies of
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[957,1123,1461,1485]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
: †Phareodontinae (including †
<emphasis box="[826,941,1493,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Phareodus</emphasis>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1845" box="[976,1096,1493,1517]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Brychaetus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[976,1096,1493,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Brychaetus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Sanders" authorityYear="1934" box="[1131,1233,1494,1517]" class="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" family="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" genus="Musperia" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1131,1233,1494,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Musperia</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Taverne" authorityYear="1975" box="[1322,1442,1493,1517]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Phareoides" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1322,1442,1493,1517]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Phareoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[859,1020,1525,1549]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
(including
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1829" box="[1145,1295,1525,1549]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Osteoglossum" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1145,1295,1525,1549]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Osteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gunther" authorityYear="1864" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Scleropages" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Scleropages</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), with
<taxonomicName authorityName="Peters" authorityYear="1876" box="[926,1079,1557,1581]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Pantodontidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Pantodontidae</taxonomicName>
(only
<taxonomicName authorityName="Peters" authorityYear="1876" baseAuthorityName="Hilton" baseAuthorityYear="2003" box="[1149,1253,1557,1581]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Pantodontidae" genus="Pantodon" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1149,1253,1557,1581]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Pantodon</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1846" box="[1314,1452,1557,1581]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Arapaimidae</taxonomicName>
as separate families, and the latter containing the subfamilies
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[887,1011,1621,1645]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Heterotinae">Heterotinae</taxonomicName>
(=
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[1055,1153,1622,1645]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1055,1153,1622,1645]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
+ †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Casier" authorityYear="1965" box="[1201,1338,1621,1645]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Dercetidae" genus="Paradercetis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Aulopiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1201,1338,1621,1645]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Paradercetis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and Arapaiminae (=
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[955,1062,1654,1677]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[955,1062,1654,1677]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
). Two family group names for the clade including
<taxonomicName authorityName="J.P.Muller" authorityYear="1843" box="[987,1094,1686,1709]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[987,1094,1686,1709]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ehrenberg" authorityYear="1828" baseAuthorityName="Lundberg, Chernoff" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[1149,1247,1686,1709]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1149,1247,1686,1709]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">Heterotis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
have been used in the literature, Arapaimini
<bibRefCitation author="Bonaparte" box="[1093,1271,1717,1741]" firstAuthor="Bonaparte" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="1 - 95" refId="ref19845" refString="Bonaparte CL. Catalogo metodico dei pesci europei. Part 2. Atti Sci Ital. 1846; 1 - 95." type="book chapter" year="1846">Bonaparte, 1846</bibRefCitation>
and Heterotidae
<bibRefCitation author="Cope" box="[813,938,1750,1774]" firstAuthor="Cope" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="579 - 93" refId="ref20814" refString="Cope ED. Observations on the systematic relations of the fishes. Am Nat. 1871; 5 (8 / 9): 579 - 93." type="journal article" year="1871">Cope, 1871</bibRefCitation>
. Although the former has priority, the latter is in broad current usage, as
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[1079,1224,1781,1805]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Heterotidinae">Heterotidinae</taxonomicName>
(
<emphasis box="[1244,1275,1782,1805]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">e.g</emphasis>
.,
<bibRefCitation author="Nelson" box="[1299,1447,1781,1806]" firstAuthor="Nelson" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" refId="ref25849" refString="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 3 rd ed. New York (NY): J. Wiley; 1994." type="book" year="1994">Nelson, 1994</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation author="Nelson" box="[813,870,1813,1837]" firstAuthor="Nelson" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" refId="ref25873" refString="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4 th ed. Hoboken (NJ): J. Wiley; 2006." type="book" year="2006">2006</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" box="[880,1074,1813,1837]" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="163 - 174" refId="ref24452" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. In: Stiassny MLJ, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. New York: Academic Press; 1996 a. p. 163 - 174." type="book chapter" year="1996" yearSuffix="a">Li, Wilson, 1996a</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[1085,1223,1813,1838]" firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="1 - 100" refId="ref22345" refString="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2003; 137 (1): 1 - 100. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1096 - 3642.2003.00032. x" type="journal article" year="2003">Hilton, 2003</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Nelson" box="[1234,1440,1813,1837]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Nelson" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" refId="ref25896" refString="Nelson JS, Grande TC, Wilson MVH. Fishes of the world. 5 th ed. Hoboken (NJ): J. Wiley; 2016." type="book" year="2016">
Nelson
<emphasis box="[1316,1363,1813,1837]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">et al</emphasis>
., 2016
</bibRefCitation>
). However, the ICZN’s (1999) criteria for reversal of precedence (Article 23.9) are not satisfied, as both family-group names have been used since 1899, and indeed
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1846" box="[1314,1452,1909,1933]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Arapaimidae</taxonomicName>
is also used in current literature (
<emphasis box="[1160,1191,1942,1965]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="10">e.g</emphasis>
.,
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[1210,1364,1942,1966]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="67 - 158" refId="ref28114" refString="Taverne L. Les Osteoglossomorphes marins de. l'Eocene du Monte Bolca (Italie): Monopteros Volta 1796, Thrissopterus Heckel, 1856 et Foreyichthys Taverne, 1979. Considerations sur la phylogenie des Teleosteens osteoglossomorphes. Stud Ric Giacimenti Terziari Bolca. 1998; 7: 67 - 158." type="journal article" year="1998">Taverne, 1998</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" firstAuthor="Bonde" lastPageId="10" lastPageNumber="11" pageId="9" pageNumber="10" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation accessDate="invalid" author="Akinyi" box="[203,412,974,998]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Akinyi" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="e. T 182580 A 7920022" refId="ref18238" refString="Akinyi E, Azeroual A, Entsua-Mensah M, Getahun A, Laleye P, Moelants T. Heterotis niloticus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2018 Mar 09]: e. T 182580 A 7920022. Available from: http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2305 / IUCN. UK. 2010 - 3. RLTS. T 182580 A 7920022. en" title="Heterotis niloticus" type="journal article" volumeTitle="The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [Internet]" year="2010">
Akinyi
<emphasis box="[285,333,974,998]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">et al</emphasis>
., 2010
</bibRefCitation>
). Therefore, the principle of priority should prevail, and Arapaiminae is the correct name for this family-group taxon (
<bibRefCitation author="van der Laan" box="[402,674,1038,1062]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="van der Laan" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="1 - 230" refId="ref28656" refString="Van der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa [serial on the Internet]. 2014; 3882: 1 - 230. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3882.1.1" type="journal article" year="2014">
van der Laan
<emphasis box="[549,596,1038,1062]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">et al</emphasis>
., 2014
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709922" ID-Zenodo-Dep="3709922" box="[136,1413,889,914]" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709922/files/figure.png" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" startId="10.[136,175,889,913]" targetBox="[136,1459,174,873]" targetPageId="10">
<paragraph blockId="10.[136,1413,889,914]" box="[136,1413,889,914]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">
<emphasis bold="true" box="[136,206,889,913]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Fig. 9.</emphasis>
Arapaiminae.
<taxonomicName box="[364,498,889,914]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Arapaima" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="9" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="arapaima">
<emphasis bold="true" box="[364,384,890,914]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">a.</emphasis>
<emphasis box="[391,498,889,912]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Arapaima</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (VIMS 38993; 120 mm SL).
<emphasis bold="true" box="[852,873,890,914]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">b.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Cuvier in Cuvier" baseAuthorityYear="1829" box="[880,1077,889,913]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Heterotis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="niloticus">
<emphasis box="[880,1077,889,913]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Heterotis niloticus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(CU 95903); Scale bar = 2 cm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph blockId="10.[136,775,974,1958]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">
The genus-level diversity among the extant
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[617,775,1070,1094]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
is dwarfed by the number of fossil genera included in or allied closely to the family (
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[358,565,1134,1158]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
). Some of these taxa are
<emphasis box="[174,315,1166,1190]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">insertae sedis</emphasis>
, but several can be referred to the subfamily †Phareodontinae (
<figureCitation box="[331,413,1198,1222]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="11.[129,168,1415,1439]" captionTargetBox="[129,1452,179,1399]" captionTargetId="figure@11.[129,1452,174,1399]" captionTargetPageId="11" captionText="Fig. 10. †Phareodontinae. a. †Phareodus testis, Eocene, Wyoming, USA. (UMA F11332; scale bar = 2 cm). b. †Brychaetus muelleri (BMNH P3898; holotype; scale bar = 5 cm) and c. †Brychaetus muelleri (BMNH 1748; scale bar = 2 cm), Eocene, England." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709924" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709924/files/figure.png" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Fig. 10</figureCitation>
), which was erected by
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="1 - 168" refId="ref28048" refString="Taverne L. Osteologie, phylogenese et systematique des teleosteens fossiles et actuels du super ordre des Osteoglossomorphes. Troisieme partie. Evolution des structures osteologiques et conclusions generales relatives a la phylogenese et a la systematique du super ordre. Acad Roy Belg Mem Cl Sci. 1979; 43 (3): 1 - 168. (Collection 8, Serie 2)" type="journal article" year="1979">Taverne (1979)</bibRefCitation>
to encompass †
<emphasis box="[384,496,1230,1254]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Phareodus</emphasis>
(Eocene, North America,
<collectingCountry box="[136,234,1262,1286]" name="Australia" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Australia</collectingCountry>
, including †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Taverne" authorityYear="1975" box="[381,499,1262,1286]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Phareoides" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[381,499,1262,1286]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Phareoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1845" box="[543,661,1262,1286]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Brychaetus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[543,661,1262,1286]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Brychaetus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (Eocene, Europe, Africa, south Asia, and possibly North America), and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Sanders" authorityYear="1934" box="[149,249,1327,1350]" class="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" family="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" genus="Musperia" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Pisces (awaiting allocation)" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[149,249,1327,1350]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Musperia</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Eocene, Sumatra). To this group can be added †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Lim" authorityYear="1996" box="[149,317,1358,1382]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Cretophareodus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[149,317,1358,1382]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Cretophareodus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Kumar, Rana &amp; Paliwal" authorityYear="2005" box="[352,509,1358,1382]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Taverneichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[352,509,1358,1382]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Taverneichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Taverne" authorityYear="2009" box="[596,775,1358,1382]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Ridewoodichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[596,775,1358,1382]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Ridewoodichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<emphasis box="[145,176,1391,1414]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">e.g</emphasis>
., see
<bibRefCitation author="Kumar" box="[241,449,1390,1414]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Kumar" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="1187 - 1209" refId="ref23490" refString="Kumar K, Rana RS, Paliwal BS. Osteoglossid and lepisosteid fish remains from the Paleocene Palana Formation, Rajasthan, India. Pap Palaeontol [serial on the Internet]. 2005; 48 (6): 1187 - 1209. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1475 - 4983.2005.00519. x" type="journal article" year="2005">
Kumar
<emphasis box="[323,379,1390,1414]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">et al.</emphasis>
, 2005
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[463,632,1390,1414]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="147 - 53" refId="ref28166" refString="Taverne L. Ridewoodichthys, a new genus for Brychaetus caheni from the marine Paleocene of Cabinda (Africa): Re-description and comments on its relationships within the Osteoglossidae (Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Bull Inst R Sci Nat Belg Sci Terre. 2009 a; 79: 147 - 53" type="journal article" year="2009" yearSuffix="a">Taverne, 2009a</bibRefCitation>
,b;
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="155 - 60" refId="ref28304" refString="Taverne L, Kumar K, Rana RS. Complement to the study of the Indian Paleocene osteoglossid fish genus Taverneichthys (Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Bull Inst R Sci Nat Belg Sci Terre. 2009; 79: 155 - 60." type="journal article" year="2009">
Taverne
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">et al.</emphasis>
, 2009
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[245,457,1422,1446]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
). Other taxa that are referable to the subfamily, or otherwise near its base (
<emphasis box="[610,641,1455,1478]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">e.g</emphasis>
., interpreted to branch off from the stem of the family, or crownward from the phareodontines) include †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[446,595,1518,1542]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Brychaetoides" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[446,595,1518,1542]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Brychaetoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gayet" authorityYear="1991" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Phareodusichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Phareodusichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Volta" authorityYear="1796" box="[207,332,1551,1574]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Monopteros" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[207,332,1551,1574]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Monopteros</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[362,507,1550,1574]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Xosteoglossid" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[362,507,1550,1574]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Xosteoglossid</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<emphasis box="[536,655,1551,1574]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Magnigena</emphasis>
, and several unnamed taxa (
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[339,481,1582,1606]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[494,709,1582,1606]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
). Two Eocene osteoglossomorphs from Africa, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Greenwood &amp; Patterson" authorityYear="1967" box="[590,670,1614,1638]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Singida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[590,670,1614,1638]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Singida</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<figureCitation box="[688,767,1614,1638]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="12.[136,175,784,808]" captionTargetBox="[136,1459,174,768]" captionTargetId="figure@12.[136,1459,174,768]" captionTargetPageId="12" captionText="Fig. 11. †Singida jacksonoides (BMNH P63333, latex peel of holotype). Scale bar = 2 cm." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709926" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709926/files/figure.png" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Fig. 11</figureCitation>
) and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Murray &amp; Wilson" authorityYear="2005" box="[194,359,1646,1670]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" genus="Chauliopareion" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[194,359,1646,1670]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Chauliopareion</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, are frequently considered to be related to
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[165,326,1678,1702]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
, primarily either as stem-groups (
<bibRefCitation author="Murray, Wilson" firstAuthor="Murray" journalOrPublisher="Zool J Linn Soc" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="213 - 28" part="144" refId="ref25455" refString="Murray AM, Wilson MVH. DescriptionofanewEoceneosteoglossid fish and additional information on Singida jacksonoides Greenwood and Patterson, 1967 (Osteoglossomorpha), with an assessment of their phylogenetic relationships. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2005; 144 (2): 213 - 28. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2005.00170. x" title="DescriptionofanewEoceneosteoglossid fish and additional information on Singida jacksonoides Greenwood and Patterson, 1967 (Osteoglossomorpha), with an assessment of their phylogenetic relationships" type="journal article" year="2005">Murray, Wilson, 2005</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Xu, Chang" box="[293,479,1710,1734]" firstAuthor="Xu" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="83 - 106" refId="ref29205" refString="Xu GH, Chang MM. Redescription of Paralycoptera wui Chang &amp; Chou, 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from the Early Cretaceous of eastern China. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2009; 157 (1): 83 - 106. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2009.00532. x" type="journal article" year="2009">Xu, Chang, 2009</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Murray" box="[491,703,1710,1734]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Murray" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="907 - 44" refId="ref25579" refString="Murray AM, Zelenitsky DK, Brinkman DB, Neuman AG. Two new Palaeocene osteoglossomorphs from Canada, with a reassessment of the relationships of the genus Joffrichthys, and analysis of diversity from articulated versus microfossil material. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2018; 183 (4): 907 - 44. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1093 / zoolinnean / zlx 100" type="journal article" year="2018">
Murray
<emphasis box="[578,633,1710,1734]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">et al.</emphasis>
, 2018
</bibRefCitation>
), or as sister-group to
<taxonomicName authorityName="Peters" authorityYear="1876" box="[293,395,1742,1766]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Pantodontidae" genus="Pantodon" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[293,395,1742,1766]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Pantodon</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[409,546,1742,1766]" firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="1 - 100" refId="ref22345" refString="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2003; 137 (1): 1 - 100. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1096 - 3642.2003.00032. x" type="journal article" year="2003">Hilton, 2003</bibRefCitation>
), although other positions have been supported (
<emphasis box="[430,461,1775,1798]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">e.g</emphasis>
., stem Osteoglossine,
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang, 2006</bibRefCitation>
; stem Osteoglossi,
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[398,538,1806,1830]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
). †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Casier" authorityYear="1961" box="[570,680,1806,1830]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Gonorhynchiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Chanopsis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Gonorynchiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[570,680,1806,1830]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Chanopsis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Aptian,
<collectingCountry box="[136,502,1838,1862]" name="Democratic Republic of the Congo" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Democratic Republic of the Congo</collectingCountry>
) has also been considered to be an osteoglossid (
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[366,503,1870,1894]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="273 - 284" refId="ref19867" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossids (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) of the Mesozoic - Comments on their interrelationships. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes: Systematics and Paleoecology. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996. p. 273 - 284." type="book chapter" year="1996">Bonde, 1996</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[513,665,1870,1894]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="67 - 158" refId="ref28114" refString="Taverne L. Les Osteoglossomorphes marins de. l'Eocene du Monte Bolca (Italie): Monopteros Volta 1796, Thrissopterus Heckel, 1856 et Foreyichthys Taverne, 1979. Considerations sur la phylogenie des Teleosteens osteoglossomorphes. Stud Ric Giacimenti Terziari Bolca. 1998; 7: 67 - 158." type="journal article" year="1998">Taverne, 1998</bibRefCitation>
), although
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[136,351,1902,1926]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton (2010)</bibRefCitation>
questioned this assessment.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="10.[136,775,974,1958]" lastBlockId="10.[820,1459,974,1702]" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">
A remarkable aspect of the fossil record of Osteoglossidae is that several forms are known from undisputedly marine deposits (
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" box="[1003,1161,1006,1030]" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="67 - 158" refId="ref28114" refString="Taverne L. Les Osteoglossomorphes marins de. l'Eocene du Monte Bolca (Italie): Monopteros Volta 1796, Thrissopterus Heckel, 1856 et Foreyichthys Taverne, 1979. Considerations sur la phylogenie des Teleosteens osteoglossomorphes. Stud Ric Giacimenti Terziari Bolca. 1998; 7: 67 - 158." type="journal article" year="1998">Taverne, 1998</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[1173,1312,1006,1030]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="273 - 284" refId="ref19867" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossids (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) of the Mesozoic - Comments on their interrelationships. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes: Systematics and Paleoecology. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996. p. 273 - 284." type="book chapter" year="1996">Bonde, 1996</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[1324,1381,1006,1030]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">2008</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
). This is remarkable because all extant osteoglossomorphs are entirely freshwater forms, and their distribution has been held as a text-book example of vicariance biogeography. However, the occurrence of marine fossil taxa suggests that at least portions of the evolutionary history of Osteoglossomorpha took place in the marine realm (
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="67 - 158" refId="ref28114" refString="Taverne L. Les Osteoglossomorphes marins de. l'Eocene du Monte Bolca (Italie): Monopteros Volta 1796, Thrissopterus Heckel, 1856 et Foreyichthys Taverne, 1979. Considerations sur la phylogenie des Teleosteens osteoglossomorphes. Stud Ric Giacimenti Terziari Bolca. 1998; 7: 67 - 158." type="journal article" year="1998">Taverne, 1998</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[927,1068,1230,1254]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde, 2008</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[1079,1293,1230,1254]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
).
<bibRefCitation author="Bonde" box="[1311,1459,1230,1254]" firstAuthor="Bonde" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="253 - 310" refId="ref19918" refString="Bonde N. Osteoglossomorphs of the marine Lower Eocene of Denmark - with remarks on other Eocene taxa and their importance for palaeobiogeography. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 253 - 310. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Bonde (2008)</bibRefCitation>
in fact concluded a marine origin of Osteoglossomorpha, with two or three freshwater invasions, although as many as nine possible invasions into marine habitats was offered as an alternative hypothesis [this latter hypothesis was regrettably miscited as Bonde’s primary conclusion by
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
]). Among the marine forms are †
<emphasis box="[1337,1458,1423,1446]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Magnigena</emphasis>
(Paleocene,
<collectingCountry box="[955,1103,1454,1478]" name="Saudi Arabia" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Saudi Arabia</collectingCountry>
), †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Agassiz" authorityYear="1845" box="[1139,1259,1454,1478]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Brychaetus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1139,1259,1454,1478]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Brychaetus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Eocene, Europe, Africa, south Asia, and possibly North America), †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Heterosteoglossum" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Heterosteoglossum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[972,1088,1518,1542]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Furichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[972,1088,1518,1542]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Furichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[1120,1268,1518,1542]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Xosteoglossid" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1120,1268,1518,1542]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Xosteoglossid</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonde" authorityYear="2008" box="[1300,1453,1518,1542]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes incertae sedis" genus="Brychaetoides" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1300,1453,1518,1542]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Brychaetoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and an unnamed osteoglossiform (Early Eocene,
<collectingCountry box="[1344,1448,1550,1574]" name="Denmark" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Denmark</collectingCountry>
), †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Volta" authorityYear="1796" box="[833,961,1583,1606]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Monopteros" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[833,961,1583,1606]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Monopteros</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Heckel" authorityYear="1856" box="[991,1138,1582,1606]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Arapaimidae" genus="Thrissopterus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[991,1138,1582,1606]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Thrissopterus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and †
<taxonomicName authorityName="Taverne" authorityYear="1979" box="[1217,1355,1582,1606]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Foreyichthyidae" genus="Foreyichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1217,1355,1582,1606]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Foreyichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Eocene, Monte Bolca,
<collectingCountry box="[971,1024,1614,1638]" name="Italy" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">Italy</collectingCountry>
), as well as several unnamed taxa (
<emphasis box="[1396,1427,1615,1638]" italics="true" pageId="10" pageNumber="11">e.g</emphasis>
., a particularly osteoglossid-like partial braincase from the Eocene London Clay;
<bibRefCitation author="Forey, Hilton" box="[1030,1243,1678,1702]" firstAuthor="Forey" pageId="10" pageNumber="11" pagination="215 - 246" refId="ref21282" refString="Forey PL, Hilton EJ. Two new Tertiary osteoglossid fishes (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) with notes on the history of the family. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao D, editors. Morphology, phylogeny and paleobiogeography of fossil fishes. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2010. p. 215 - 246." type="book chapter" year="2010">Forey, Hilton, 2010</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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