200 lines
28 KiB
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200 lines
28 KiB
XML
<document id="D6BA469238B4F2FF5D136E658F5AFAE7" ID-DOI="10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.008" ID-ISSN="1873-3700" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10485291" IM.bibliography_approvedBy="felipe" IM.illustrations_approvedBy="julia" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="felipe" IM.metadata_approvedBy="julia" IM.tables_approvedBy="julia" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="julia" IM.treatments_approvedBy="julia" checkinTime="1704944120295" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="Stevenson, Philip C., Green, Paul W. C., Veitch, Nigel C., Farrell, Iain W., Kusolwa, Paul & Belmain, Steven R." docDate="2016" docId="03C0879E2B160A45FCB44B21FF4A1627" docLanguage="en" docName="Phytochemistry.123.25-32.pdf" docOrigin="Phytochemistry 123" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.008" docStyle="DocumentStyle:9E596C34F4E94307D29315B03ACE1007.6:Phytochemistry.2014-2019.journal_article" docStyleId="9E596C34F4E94307D29315B03ACE1007" docStyleName="Phytochemistry.2014-2019.journal_article" docStyleVersion="6" docTitle="Zanha africana" docType="treatment" docVersion="1" lastPageNumber="27" masterDocId="FFF9FFE62B170A46FF914D41FFBF1319" masterDocTitle="Nor-hopanes from Zanha africana root bark with toxicity to bruchid beetles" masterLastPageNumber="32" masterPageNumber="25" pageNumber="26" updateTime="1705346660018" updateUser="julia">
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<mods:title id="AB9DFAE3C7805CFFD9AEB1EC78BC0DC3">Nor-hopanes from Zanha africana root bark with toxicity to bruchid beetles</mods:title>
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<mods:name id="F7DDCA82A3736768C2459ECF79633C66" type="personal">
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<mods:namePart id="8C491D502C2AA48DCFEE892162FD4379">Stevenson, Philip C.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="83AE9A84602D3328677CA1CF2767E978">Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME 4 4 TB, UK & Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW 9 3 AB, UK</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="50B10C6D28A9A1D076D20EFC3633BDAB">Green, Paul W. C.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="24A83A7F6FFB669267BA3A5B49FC73E8">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW 9 3 AB, UK</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="C036FA0ADE8C19FFDD0FE76691613FF4">Veitch, Nigel C.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="F2E311C79BE7488725CC3ABD1792685C">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW 9 3 AB, UK</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="C0F8254872D2F037339F528F0ED05350">Farrell, Iain W.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="C6EE187C85C26999168812AB828FB042">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW 9 3 AB, UK</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="1F30BCC87A144FB951FE3C79CF9D6B25">Kusolwa, Paul</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="B3704DE45F3DAD2E8D499D75E49F9F5C">Faculty of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Box 3005, Morogoro, Tanzania</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="8A267CC9A48050D6FDE346329855C271">Belmain, Steven R.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="F4336908AB5BC40660B7E61CA148D9C1">Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME 4 4 TB, UK</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:typeOfResource id="30BF47CA031387BCDA7275C21E5B745C">text</mods:typeOfResource>
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<mods:title id="3A486B526B7DAA7C9B3059FFA3F53AFD">Phytochemistry</mods:title>
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<mods:date id="BC084A3F35948CC2ACAD118832B86A33">2016</mods:date>
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<mods:number id="A205FC325DDEEEE2D83008A28D03B346">2016-03-31</mods:number>
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<mods:number id="1EE8005BA3820035717C66358050974C">123</mods:number>
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<mods:start id="1A7FABD1802DFF6E7D5F12C95A56EFDD">25</mods:start>
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<mods:url id="882E56EEE0D18F078E510DAB09100B63">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.008</mods:url>
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<mods:classification id="53140C8BE3C39C8F30FFF0C60A8DACCB">journal article</mods:classification>
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<mods:identifier id="258E3206C9B9CE0568A8274567B7058E" type="DOI">10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.008</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier id="D8A6469540C35FC352AB9D32E49E8420" type="ISSN">1873-3700</mods:identifier>
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<treatment id="03C0879E2B160A45FCB44B21FF4A1627" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03C0879E2B160A45FCB44B21FF4A1627" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C0879E2B160A45FCB44B21FF4A1627" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="27" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">
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<subSubSection id="C37365032B160A47FCB44B21FCC81589" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8BD636882B160A47FCB44B21FCC81589" blockId="1.[805,1427,1632,1680]" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">
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<heading id="D09E81E42B160A47FCB44B21FCC81589" fontSize="8" level="3" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" reason="8">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B160A47FCB44B21FCC81589" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">
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2.2. Biological evaluation of compounds from
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B160A47FB714B21FAF9156D" ID-CoL="5CW39" authority="Radlk" box="[1248,1350,1632,1652]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">Z. africana</taxonomicName>
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against bruchids
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</emphasis>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C37365032B160A45FCD54BF4FF4A1627" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="28" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" type="description">
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<paragraph id="8BD636882B160A44FCD54BF4FF0E14C3" blockId="1.[805,1475,1715,2015]" lastBlockId="2.[113,783,1349,2010]" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="27" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">
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Water, methanol and chloroform extracts of
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B160A47FAB24BF2FA3215DE" box="[1315,1421,1715,1735]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B160A47FAB24BF2FA3215DE" box="[1315,1421,1715,1735]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">Z. africana</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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root bark (10% w/v) significantly reduced the number of eggs laid per female bruchid when compared to the solvent control both prior to and after the exposure to cowpeas (
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B160A47FB384A46FAE71402" box="[1193,1368,1799,1819]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Vigna" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="1" pageNumber="26" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="unguiculata">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B160A47FB384A46FAE71402" box="[1193,1368,1799,1819]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">Vigna unguiculata</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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L. (Walp)) (
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<tableCitation id="C6EB03332B160A47FCBC4A65FCC8142E" box="[813,887,1828,1847]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="5.[805,849,966,980]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Table 4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean percent mortality and number of eggs laid per female when bruchids were exposed for six days to crude extracts, isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and compared with a rotenone positive control." pageId="1" pageNumber="26">Table 4</tableCitation>
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and
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<figureCitation id="13522A0D2B160A47FC3B4A65FC5F142E" box="[938,992,1828,1847]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="4.[113,139,1947,1961]" captionTargetBox="[348,1256,1425,1918]" captionTargetId="figure-405@4.[348,1256,1425,1919]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Fig. 2. Relationship between bruchid mortality and number of eggs laid per female when exposed for six days to crude extracts and isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and a positive control (rotenone)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10485293" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10485293/files/figure.png" pageId="1" pageNumber="26">Fig. 2</figureCitation>
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). None of the treatments at equivalent concentrations were more toxic than rotenone, the positive control. Water and chloroform extracts assayed as a 10% w/v extract of dry root bark also increased mortality of bruchids over a six day exposure period (
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<tableCitation id="C6EB03332B160A47FCE44AD5FC0014BE" box="[885,959,1940,1959]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="5.[805,849,966,980]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Table 4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean percent mortality and number of eggs laid per female when bruchids were exposed for six days to crude extracts, isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and compared with a rotenone positive control." pageId="1" pageNumber="26">Table 4</tableCitation>
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). Prior to the addition of the cowpeas, the females actively probed on vials for suitable oviposition sites and left visible marks in the extract residues on the vial surface indicative of this behaviour; they also deposited eggs. Probing is part of a sequence of behaviours leading to oviposition (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FDF04823FCB4166D" author="Parr, M. J. & Tran, B. M. D. & Simmonds, M. S. J. & Credland, P. F." box="[609,779,1377,1397]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="107 - 117" refId="ref8845" refString="Parr, M. J., Tran, B. M. D., Simmonds, M. S. J., Credland, P. F., 1996. Oviposition behaviour of the cowpea seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. Physiol. Entomol. 21, 107 - 117." type="journal article" year="1996">Parr et al., 1996</bibRefCitation>
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,
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FFE0483CFF1B1689" author="Parr, M. J. & Tran, B. M. D. & Simmonds, M. S. J. & Credland, P. F." box="[113,164,1405,1424]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="150 - 157" refId="ref8900" refString="Parr, M. J., Tran, B. M. D., Simmonds, M. S. J., Credland, P. F., 1998. Duration of behaviour patterns during oviposition by the bruchid beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. Physiol. Entomol. 23, 150 - 157." type="journal article" year="1998">1998</bibRefCitation>
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) and provides a route of absorption of toxins, where present, via ovipositors. Females should have laid eggs on the cowpeas when given the opportunity, but in the presence of all extracts they laid significantly fewer eggs compared with the solvent control (
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<tableCitation id="C6EB03332B150A44FFEB48ACFF711519" box="[122,206,1517,1536]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="5.[805,849,966,980]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Table 4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean percent mortality and number of eggs laid per female when bruchids were exposed for six days to crude extracts, isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and compared with a rotenone positive control." pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Table 4</tableCitation>
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). Similarly, a significantly reduced oviposition was recorded from insects in the presence of
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FD854B48FD9E1505" bold="true" box="[532,545,1545,1564]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">1</emphasis>
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and
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FDC54B48FDDE1505" bold="true" box="[596,609,1545,1564]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">5</emphasis>
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at all concentrations evaluated (10, 100,1000 ppm) in comparison to the solvent control and this effect was not significantly different to rotenone, the positive control (
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<tableCitation id="C6EB03332B150A44FEDE4B1DFE231576" box="[335,412,1628,1647]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="5.[805,849,966,980]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Table 4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean percent mortality and number of eggs laid per female when bruchids were exposed for six days to crude extracts, isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and compared with a rotenone positive control." pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Table 4</tableCitation>
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and
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<figureCitation id="13522A0D2B150A44FE444B1DFDB01576" box="[469,527,1628,1647]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="4.[113,139,1947,1961]" captionTargetBox="[348,1256,1425,1918]" captionTargetId="figure-405@4.[348,1256,1425,1919]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Fig. 2. Relationship between bruchid mortality and number of eggs laid per female when exposed for six days to crude extracts and isolated nor-hopane compounds from Zanha africana root bark and a positive control (rotenone)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10485293" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10485293/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Fig. 2</figureCitation>
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). The effects of the two
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FFE04B36FF2D1592" box="[113,146,1655,1675]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">nor</emphasis>
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-hopanes on bruchid mortality were influenced by concentration and exposure period. Mortality observed after 1, 2, 3 and 6 days exposure were described by linear regression, with significantly increasing mortality observed with increasing exposure period and increasing concentration (S1). Although the addition of untreated beans after 72 h provided a refuge from exposure to the extract and compounds, they did not prevent further mortality of insects. In fact, the mortality continued to increase after 72 h (S1). These data suggest that the
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FE2C4A17FE611473" box="[445,478,1878,1898]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">nor</emphasis>
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-hopanes are toxic to bruchids but are less toxic than other highly potent plant compounds such as rotenone and deguelin identified in
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FE654ACFFD2914BB" box="[500,662,1934,1954]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Tephrosia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="vogelii">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FE654ACFFD2914BB" box="[500,662,1934,1954]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Tephrosia vogelii</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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that is used as a natural pesticide in East and Southern Africa (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FDEC4AEAFF1B14C3" author="Belmain, S. R. & Amoah, B. A. & Nyirenda, S. P. & Kamanula, J. F. & Stevenson, P. C." pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="10055 - 10063" refId="ref7795" refString="Belmain, S. R., Amoah, B. A., Nyirenda, S. P., Kamanula, J. F., Stevenson, P. C., 2012. Highly variable insect control efficacy of Tephrosia vogelii chemotypes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 10055 - 10063." type="journal article" year="2012">Belmain et al., 2012</bibRefCitation>
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).
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</paragraph>
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<caption id="DF1666002B150A44FE7449BCFBD51612" box="[485,1130,1276,1291]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" startId="2.[485,511,1277,1291]" targetBox="[197,1407,186,1244]" targetPageId="2">
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<paragraph id="8BD636882B150A44FE7449BCFBD51612" blockId="2.[485,1130,1276,1291]" box="[485,1130,1276,1291]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FE7449BCFDA81612" bold="true" box="[485,535,1277,1291]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Fig. 1.</emphasis>
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FD8E49BDFDFD1612" box="[543,578,1276,1291]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Nor-</emphasis>
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hopanes isolated from
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FD6C49BDFCCE1612" box="[765,881,1276,1291]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FD6C49BDFCCE1612" box="[765,881,1276,1291]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Zanha africana</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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root-bark (see text for detail).
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</paragraph>
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</caption>
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<paragraph id="8BD636882B150A45FCCF4807FF4A1627" blockId="2.[831,1501,1349,2010]" lastBlockId="3.[87,757,1127,1342]" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="28" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">
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Hopanes, while rare, are previously known from plants, for example, from
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FC4E4821FB79166D" box="[991,1222,1376,1396]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Gentianaceae" genus="Megacodon" kingdom="Plantae" order="Gentianales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="stylophorus">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FC4E4821FB79166D" box="[991,1222,1376,1396]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Megacodon stylophorus</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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(
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FB464820FADE166D" box="[1239,1377,1377,1396]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Gentianaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Gentianales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Gentianaceae</taxonomicName>
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) (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FAE84820FCCE1689" author="Liu, C. & Liao, Z. X. & Liu, S. J. & Ji, L. J. & Sun, H. F." pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="936 - 941" refId="ref8514" refString="Liu, C., Liao, Z. X., Liu, S. J., Ji, L. J., Sun, H. F., 2014. Two new 2,3 - seco-hopane triterpene derivatives from Megacodon stylophorus and their antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities. Planta Med. 80, 936 - 941." type="journal article" year="2014">Liu et al., 2014</bibRefCitation>
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) and are elsewhere reported to be insecticidal compounds produced by entomopathogenic fungi (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FB6F48D8FA7016B5" author="Isaka, M. & Palasarn, S. & Supothina, S. & Komwijit, S." box="[1278,1487,1433,1453]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="782 - 789" refId="ref8213" refString="Isaka, M., Palasarn, S., Supothina, S., Komwijit, S., Luangsa-ard, J. J., 2011. Bioactive compounds from the scale insect pathogenic fungus Conoideocrella tenuis BCC 18627. J. Nat. Prod. 74, 782 - 789." type="journal article" year="2011">Isaka et al., 2011</bibRefCitation>
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).
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FCAE48F5FCDD16D1" box="[831,866,1460,1480]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Nor</emphasis>
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-hopanes, however, have previously been of interest primarily due to their occurrence in crude oil albeit in highly reduced form (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FCD648ACFC421519" author="Prince, R. C. & Elmendorf, D. L. & Lute, J. R. & Hsu, C. S. & Haith, C. E. & Senius, J. D. & Dechert, G. J. & Douglas, G. S. & Butler, E. L." box="[839,1021,1517,1536]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="142 - 145" refId="ref8958" refString="Prince, R. C., Elmendorf, D. L., Lute, J. R., Hsu, C. S., Haith, C. E., Senius, J. D., Dechert, G. J., Douglas, G. S., Butler, E. L., 1994. 17 - oi (H), 21 - β (H) - Hopane as a conserved internal marker for estimating the biodegradation of crude-oil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28, 142 - 145." type="journal article" year="1994">Prince et al., 1994</bibRefCitation>
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) rather than the oxidised and benzoyloxy substituted products reported here and have not been reported before as insecticidal compounds. While
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FB074B65FB1C152E" bold="true" box="[1174,1187,1572,1591]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">1</emphasis>
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and
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FB444B64FB5D1521" bold="true" box="[1237,1250,1573,1592]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">5</emphasis>
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were not potent insecticidal compounds on their own compared to rotenone, the positive control, it is likely that they contribute to the insecticidal effects of
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FCAE4B36FC1C1592" box="[831,931,1655,1675]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FCAE4B36FC1C1592" box="[831,931,1655,1675]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Z. africana</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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preparations that are used by farmers.
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FABF4B36FA081592" box="[1326,1463,1655,1675]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">
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<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FABF4B36FAD51592" box="[1326,1386,1655,1675]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Zanha</emphasis>
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species
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</taxonomicName>
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are also rich in saponins (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FBB24BD5FB4B15BE" author="Cuellar, M. J. & Giner, R. M. & Recio, M. C. & Just, M. J. & Manez, S. & Cerda, M. & Hostettmann, K. & Rios, J. L." box="[1059,1268,1684,1704]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="1158 - 1160" refId="ref7961" refString="Cuellar, M. J., Giner, R. M., Recio, M. C., Just, M. J., Manez, S., Cerda, M., Hostettmann, K., Rios, J. L., 1997 a. Zanhasaponins A and B, antiphospholipase A (2) saponins from an antiinflammatory extract of Zanha africana root bark. J. Nat. Prod. 60, 1158 - 1160." type="journal article" year="1997">Cuellar et al., 1997a</bibRefCitation>
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,b;
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FA834BD5FA6A15BE" author="Lavaud, C. & Sayagh, C. & Humbert, F. & Pouny, I. & Delaude, C." box="[1298,1493,1684,1704]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="225 - 231" refId="ref8575" refString="Lavaud, C., Sayagh, C., Humbert, F., Pouny, I., Delaude, C., 2015. Triterpenoid saponins from root bark of Zanha golungensis (Sapindaceae). Carbohydr. Res. 402, 225 - 231." type="journal article" year="2015">Lavaud et al., 2015</bibRefCitation>
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) which occur widely in other plants used for control of a agricultural pests (
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FC5D4B8DFB6B15C6" author="Jain, D. C. & Tripathi, A. K." box="[972,1236,1740,1759]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="139 - 141" refId="ref8309" refString="Jain, D. C., Tripathi, A. K., 1991. Insect feeding-deterrent activity of some saponin glycosides. Phytother. Res. 5, 139 - 141." type="journal article" year="1991">Jain and Tripathi, 1991</bibRefCitation>
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;
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FB784B8DFA6715C6" author="Mongalo, N. I. & McGaw, L. J. & Finnie, J. F. & Van Staden, J." box="[1257,1496,1740,1759]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="215 - 226" refId="ref8688" refString="Mongalo, N. I., McGaw, L. J., Finnie, J. F., Van Staden, J., 2015. Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen (Polygalaceae): a review of its ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological properties and toxicology. J. Ethnopharmacol. 165, 215 - 226." type="journal article" year="2015">Mongalo et al., 2015</bibRefCitation>
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;
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FCAE4BA9FBA515E2" author="Nozzolillo, C. & Arnason, J. T. & Campos, F. & Donskov, N. & Jurzysta, M." box="[831,1050,1768,1787]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="995 - 1002" refId="ref8797" refString="Nozzolillo, C., Arnason, J. T., Campos, F., Donskov, N., Jurzysta, M., 1997. Alfalfa leaf saponins and insect resistance. J. Chem. Ecol. 23, 995 - 1002." type="journal article" year="1997">Nozzolillo et al., 1997</bibRefCitation>
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;
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FBB24BA9FB5A15E2" author="Shinoda, T. & Nagao, T. & Nakayama, M. & Serizawa, H. & Koshioka, M. & Okabe, H. & Kawai, A." box="[1059,1253,1768,1787]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="587 - 599" refId="ref9119" refString="Shinoda, T., Nagao, T., Nakayama, M., Serizawa, H., Koshioka, M., Okabe, H., Kawai, A., 2002. Identification of a triterpenoid saponin from a crucifer, Barbarea vulgaris, as a feeding deterrent to the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. J. Chem. Ecol. 28, 587 - 599." type="journal article" year="2002">Shinoda et al., 2002</bibRefCitation>
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) and, in some cases, also explain, biological activities against storage pests including bruchids activity (
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|
<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B150A44FC4F4A61FB76142A" author="Stevenson, P. C. & Dayarathna, T. K. & Belmain, S. R. & Veitch, N. C." box="[990,1225,1824,1843]" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" pagination="8860 - 8867" refId="ref9275" refString="Stevenson, P. C., Dayarathna, T. K., Belmain, S. R., Veitch, N. C., 2009. Bisdesmosidic saponins from Securidaca longepedunculata roots: evaluation of deterrency and toxicity to Coleopteran storage pests. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57, 8860 - 8867." type="journal article" year="2009">Stevenson et al., 2009</bibRefCitation>
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). Thus further work may reveal additional value of saponins of this species but the present work provides scientific evidence that at least partially underpins the use of
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<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FC364A33FBB4149F" box="[935,1035,1906,1926]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">
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|
<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FC364A33FBB4149F" box="[935,1035,1906,1926]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Z. africana</emphasis>
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|
</taxonomicName>
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|
by resource-poor farmers based on the occurrence
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|
<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FCEA4ACFFC2314BB" box="[891,924,1934,1954]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">nor</emphasis>
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|
-hopanes that reduce the survival and oviposition of storage pests. The commercial potential of plant materials as pesticides is constrained by regulatory hurdles and plants such as
|
|
<taxonomicName id="4C694D0B2B150A44FAE64A87FA6314C3" box="[1399,1500,1990,2010]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Sapindaceae" genus="Zanha" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="2" pageNumber="27" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="africana">
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|
<emphasis id="B91DEA9A2B150A44FAE64A87FA6314C3" box="[1399,1500,1990,2010]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="27">Z. africana</emphasis>
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|
</taxonomicName>
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|
are unlikely to replace synthetic products (
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|
<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B140A45FD964926FD1A1763" author="Sola, P. & Mvumi, B. M. & Ogendo, J. O. & Mponda, O. & Kamanula, J. F. & Nyirenda, S. P. & Belmain, S. R. & Stevenson, P. C." box="[519,677,1127,1147]" pageId="3" pageNumber="28" pagination="369 - 384" refId="ref9192" refString="Sola, P., Mvumi, B. M., Ogendo, J. O., Mponda, O., Kamanula, J. F., Nyirenda, S. P., Belmain, S. R., Stevenson, P. C., 2014. Botanical pesticide production, trade and regulatory mechanisms in sub-Saharan Africa: making a case for plant-based pesticidal products. Food Secur. 6, 369 - 384." type="journal article" year="2014">Sola et al., 2014</bibRefCitation>
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).
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF84B792B140A45FD264929FF25178F" author="Isman, M. B." pageId="3" pageNumber="28" pagination="45 - 66" refId="ref8267" refString="Isman, M. B., 2006. Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world. Annu. Rev. Entomol 51, 45 - 66. Annual Reviews, Palo Alto." type="journal article" year="2006">Isman (2006)</bibRefCitation>
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, however, suggests that the value of pesticidal plants will be most important in developing countries by poorer farmers. But, this requires greater scientific information to help understand how use of pesticidal plants might be optimised. In this respect, the present work provides important knowledge for understanding more about chemical variability, persistence, residues and improving application.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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</treatment>
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</document> |