291 lines
33 KiB
XML
291 lines
33 KiB
XML
<document id="6D3F005186E2CE669272691082A7A7F7" ID-CLB-Dataset="58517" ID-DOI="10.5281/zenodo.6514377" ID-GBIF-Dataset="58bf4faf-7498-4c12-bcb3-b6f085b58978" ID-ISBN="978-84-96553-77-4" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6514377" IM.illustrations_requiresApprovalFor="plazi" IM.metadata_requiresApprovalFor="plazi" IM.taxonomicNames_requiresApprovalFor="plazi" checkinTime="1635374545975" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2011" docId="03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Cervus nippon Temminck 1838" docType="treatment" docVersion="10" lastPageNumber="421" masterDocId="FF99FFBCFFC5FFC4FFCBFFB7E63DFFF9" masterDocTitle="Cervidae" masterLastPageNumber="443" masterPageNumber="350" pageNumber="421" updateTime="1699464900173" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:mods id="38D2033EF6D7C0EFFCAB92DBB5E9B40D" xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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<mods:titleInfo id="552CE983CFB64A9328EF59B65BC2BDC4">
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<mods:title id="A4579542FC76E9C5521E7CB830CE93B5">Cervidae</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="475A70C55D24978EEFDDE173836DF810">Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="DE8E1C103FCF405CB59C43336E568668">Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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<mods:dateIssued id="EA02C5ECBF0E0FB45106243E12410B11">2011</mods:dateIssued>
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<mods:dateOther id="26748F7F6D0E9A0340DAE23F28A124CC" type="pubDate">2011-08-31</mods:dateOther>
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<mods:publisher id="297758FC908F7BDE4C3A9511F2F50E88">Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
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<mods:placeTerm id="50AF5B46F7F601E0BD2CBC8DE102308D">Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
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<mods:titleInfo id="F68963A2CCA611BD9847D0E6A802C4C3">
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<mods:title id="B1A0E9826C7C3911C4000A0743703802">Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:part id="78CCA769379D8B93B821886B7E89A637">
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<mods:identifier id="E91184FD10A889593E304F847CF1B141" type="ISBN">978-84-96553-77-4</mods:identifier>
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<treatment id="03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514499" ID-GBIF-Taxon="195657961" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6514499" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5" lastPageNumber="421" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CE6E3FE3C" box="[165,222,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="multiple">
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CE6E3FE3C" blockId="14.[164,766,411,490]" box="[165,222,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<heading id="D0FE81BEFFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CE6E3FE3C" box="[165,222,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<figureCitation id="13322A57FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CE6E3FE3C" box="[165,222,411,453]" captionStart="Plate 17" captionStartId="14.[170,202,3419,3440]" captionTargetBox="[13,2767,16,3635]" captionTargetPageId="13" captionText="23. Sika Deer (Cervus nippon), 24. Central Asian Red Deer (Cervus wallichii), 25. Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), 26. Wapiti (Cervus canadensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514474" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514474/files/figure.png" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">23.</figureCitation>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF24FE2CE785FE3C" box="[239,440,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF24FE2CE785FE3C" blockId="14.[164,766,411,490]" box="[239,440,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<heading id="D0FE81BEFFCBFFCAFF24FE2CE785FE3C" box="[239,440,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<vernacularName id="050A46FCFFCBFFCAFF24FE2CE785FE3C" box="[239,440,411,453]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Sika Deer</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFE25FE2AE4C3FE3A" box="[494,766,413,451]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFE25FE2AE4C3FE3A" blockId="14.[164,766,411,490]" box="[494,766,413,451]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<heading id="D0FE81BEFFCBFFCAFE25FE2AE4C3FE3A" box="[494,766,413,451]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFE25FE2AE4C3FE3A" ID-CoL="T56N" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1838" box="[494,766,413,451]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="nippon">
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<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFE25FE2AE4C3FE3A" box="[494,766,413,451]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Cervus nippon</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF6FFE62E4F3FE13" box="[164,718,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="vernacular_names">
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||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF6FFE62E4F3FE13" blockId="14.[164,766,411,490]" box="[164,718,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<heading id="D0FE81BEFFCBFFCAFF6FFE62E4F3FE13" box="[164,718,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF6FFE62E6CCFE13" bold="true" box="[164,241,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">French:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050A46FCFFCBFFCAFF31FE62E76DFE13" box="[250,336,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Cerf sika</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFEAEFE62E7FDFE13" bold="true" box="[357,448,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">German:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050A46FCFFCBFFCAFE01FE62E410FE13" box="[458,557,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Sikahirsch</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFD88FE62E4A0FE13" bold="true" box="[579,669,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Spanish:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050A46FCFFCBFFCAFD6CFE62E4F3FE13" box="[679,718,469,490]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Sika</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFCC7FDADE568FDA6" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFCC7FDADE568FDA6" blockId="14.[780,1367,538,999]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFCC7FDADE59AFDCE" bold="true" box="[780,935,538,567]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFC00FDADE56DFDA6" authority="Temminck, 1838" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1838" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="mnippon">Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838</taxonomicName>
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,
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFC90FDF1E588FDA6" box="[859,949,582,607]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="materials_examined">
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||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFC90FDF1E588FDA6" blockId="14.[780,1367,538,999]" box="[859,949,582,607]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<materialsCitation id="3B613C8FFFCBFFCAFC90FDF1E588FDA6" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785196333" box="[859,949,582,607]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC90FDF1E58FFDA6" box="[859,946,582,607]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
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.
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</materialsCitation>
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||
</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFCC7FDDEE741FB57" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="discussion">
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||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFCC7FDDEE741FB57" blockId="14.[780,1367,538,999]" lastBlockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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The first true members of the genus
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFAECFDDEE507FD54" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Cervus</taxonomicName>
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probably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC1FFC9DE214FCB2" box="[980,1065,810,843]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">China</collectingCountry>
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, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC08FC71E227FC1E" box="[963,1050,966,999]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
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.
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFBE1FC71E243FC1E" box="[1066,1150,966,999]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
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was colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.
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</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF6DFB0EE376F888" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="distribution">
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||
<caption id="DF76665AFFCBFFCAFF6DFB0EE376F888" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514452" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6514452" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514452/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" targetBox="[162,757,557,972]" targetPageId="14">
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF6DFB0EE408FB2F" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[166,565,1209,1238]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF6DFB0EE408FB2F" bold="true" box="[166,565,1209,1238]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FB68E401FADD" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FB68E401FADD" authority="Temminck, 1838" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1838" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="nippon">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FB68E401FADD" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FA99E595FAB2" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[169,936,1326,1355]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FA99E595FAB2" authority="Kishida, 1936" authorityName="Kishida" authorityYear="1936" box="[169,936,1326,1355]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="centralis">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FA99E595FAB2" box="[169,936,1326,1355]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FAE6E2E6FA8B" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[169,1243,1361,1394]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FAE6E2E6FA8B" authority="Heude, 1884" authorityName="Heude" authorityYear="1884" baseAuthorityName="Heude" baseAuthorityYear="1884" box="[169,1243,1361,1394]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="grassianus">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FAE6E2E6FA8B" box="[169,1243,1361,1394]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FACAE4FAFA63" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[169,711,1405,1434]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FACAE4FAFA63" authority="Swinhoe, 1873" authorityName="Swinhoe" authorityYear="1873" box="[169,711,1405,1434]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="kopschi">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FACAE4FAFA63" box="[169,711,1405,1434]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FA28E7B5FA10" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FA28E7B5FA10" authority="Milne-Edwards, 1871" authorityName="Milne-Edwards" authorityYear="1871" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="mandarinus">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FA28E7B5FA10" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62FA45E48BF9CE" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF62FA45E48BF9CE" authority="Swinhoe, 1864" authorityName="Swinhoe" authorityYear="1864" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="mantschuricus">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF62FA45E48BF9CE" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF61F98AE242F9A7" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[170,1151,1597,1630]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF61F98AE242F9A7" authority="Gervais, 1841" authorityName="Gervais" authorityYear="1841" box="[170,1151,1597,1630]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="pseudaxis">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF61F98AE242F9A7" box="[170,1151,1597,1630]" name="Vietnam" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF61F9DFE2ECF97C" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[170,1233,1640,1669]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF61F9DFE2ECF97C" authority="Guo, Cheng & Wang, 1978" authorityName="Guo, Chen & Wang" authorityYear="1978" box="[170,1233,1640,1669]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="sichuanicus">
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<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF61F9DFE2ECF97C" box="[170,1233,1640,1669]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).</collectingCountry>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF61F923E4A2F954" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[170,671,1684,1709]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
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||
<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF61F923E4A2F954" authority="Blyth, 1860" authorityName="Blyth" authorityYear="1860" box="[170,671,1684,1709]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="taiouanus">
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF61F923E4A2F954" box="[170,671,1684,1709]" name="Taiwan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.</collectingCountry>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF61F900E55DF92D" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" box="[170,864,1719,1748]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C094D51FFCBFFCAFF61F900E42AF92D" authority="Heude, 1884" authorityName="Heude" authorityYear="1884" box="[170,535,1719,1748]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Cervus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="nippon" subSpecies="yesoensis">C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884</taxonomicName>
|
||
— N
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFD9FF900E495F92D" box="[596,680,1719,1748]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49CDF830FFCBFFCAFD0BF900E56EF92D" box="[704,851,1719,1748]" country="Japan" name="Hokkaido" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Hokkaido</collectingRegion>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF63F96DE376F888" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
It was anciently introduced to Solo I (
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFD01F96DE557F902" box="[714,874,1754,1787]" name="Philippines" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Philippines</collectingCountry>
|
||
) and in 17" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFE8CF8B6E79CF8DB" box="[327,417,1793,1826]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
). Also introduced in 19" and 20" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFEEDF886E7B1F8B3" box="[294,396,1841,1866]" name="Austria" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Austria</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFE57F886E447F8B3" box="[412,634,1841,1866]" name="Czech Republic" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Czech Republic</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFD40F886E52CF8B3" box="[651,785,1841,1866]" name="Denmark" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Denmark</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFCEAF886E5B3F8B3" box="[801,910,1841,1866]" name="Finland" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Finland</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC54F886E23DF8B3" box="[927,1024,1841,1866]" name="France" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">France</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFBDAF886E2ACF8B3" box="[1041,1169,1841,1866]" name="Germany" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Germany</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFB6AF886E338F8B3" box="[1185,1285,1841,1866]" name="Poland" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Poland</collectingCountry>
|
||
, western
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFF2BF8EFE704F888" box="[224,313,1880,1905]" name="Russia" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Russia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFE4CF8EFE7C2F888" box="[391,511,1880,1905]" name="Ukraine" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Ukraine</collectingCountry>
|
||
),
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFDDCF8EFE4A9F888" box="[535,660,1880,1905]" name="Armenia" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Armenia</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFD68F8EFE506F888" box="[675,827,1880,1905]" name="Azerbaijan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Azerbaijan</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC87F8EFE5D2F888" box="[844,1007,1880,1905]" name="Madagascar" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Madagascar</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFC34F8EFE285F888" box="[1023,1208,1880,1905]" name="New Zealand" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">New Zealand</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFACDF8EFE37AF888" box="[1286,1351,1880,1905]" name="United States of America" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF6CF8C0E2A5F52B" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="description">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF6CF8C0E2A5F52B" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF6CF8C0E79BF861" bold="true" box="[167,422,1911,1944]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
|
||
Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49CDF830FFCBFFCAFD98F85AE4E0F7F7" box="[595,733,2029,2062]" country="Japan" name="Hokkaido" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Hokkaido</collectingRegion>
|
||
(with records of
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAFC1CF85AE20FF7F7" box="[983,1074,2029,2062]" metricMagnitude="2" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.76" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="kg" value="176.0">176 kg</quantity>
|
||
for stags and
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAFB36F85AE365F7F7" box="[1277,1368,2029,2062]" metricMagnitude="2" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.08" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="kg" value="108.0">108 kg</quantity>
|
||
for hinds), the lightest in southern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFD5DF7A2E4D0F7CF" box="[662,749,2069,2102]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAFD85F53DE49DF552" box="[590,672,2698,2731]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="9.8" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="cm" value="98.0">98 cm</quantity>
|
||
for antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF62F56EE371F4D8" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62F56EE371F4D8" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF62F56EE72AF503" bold="true" box="[169,279,2777,2810]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Habitat.</emphasis>
|
||
Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAFD73F4B7E537F4D8" box="[696,778,2816,2849]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="cm" value="40.0">40 cm</quantity>
|
||
is limiting. Up to
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAFBC1F4B7E24DF4D8" box="[1034,1136,2816,2849]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.0" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="m" value="3000.0">3000 m</quantity>
|
||
above sea level.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF62F49CE4A3F446" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="food_feeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF62F49CE4A3F446" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF62F49CE793F4B1" bold="true" box="[169,430,2859,2888]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
|
||
It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFE6EF4C1E7C4F46E" box="[421,505,2934,2967]" name="Japan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
the deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFF61F473EFE9FDCF" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="breeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFF61F473EFE9FDCF" blockId="14.[165,1371,1006,3320]" lastBlockId="14.[1434,2641,257,1634]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFF61F473E712F41C" bold="true" box="[170,303,3012,3045]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Breeding.</emphasis>
|
||
Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFA51FDF7EE99FDA4" box="[1434,2212,576,605]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="activity">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFA51FDF7EE99FDA4" blockId="14.[1434,2641,257,1634]" box="[1434,2212,576,605]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFA51FDF7E0B8FDA4" bold="true" box="[1434,1669,576,605]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
|
||
Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFA57FDD4E060FC39" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFA57FDD4E060FC39" blockId="14.[1434,2641,257,1634]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFA57FDD4EE62FD7D" bold="true" box="[1436,2143,611,644]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
|
||
It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAF705FD3DEF3FFD52" box="[2254,2306,650,683]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="8.0" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="m" value="8.0">8 m</quantity>
|
||
in length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of
|
||
<quantity id="4CF19B37FFCBFFCAF73AFCB7EF74FCD8" box="[2289,2377,768,801]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.5" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" unit="km" value="35.0">35 km</quantity>
|
||
between summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFA56FC7EE05DFA1F" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="conservation">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFA56FC7EE05DFA1F" blockId="14.[1434,2641,257,1634]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFA56FC7EE138FC1F" bold="true" box="[1437,1797,969,998]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
|
||
Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF73BFBA4EF9CFBCD" box="[2288,2465,1043,1076]" name="South Korea" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">South Korea</collectingCountry>
|
||
it is extinct, in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFA0FFB8CE045FBA5" box="[1476,1656,1083,1116]" name="North Korea" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">North Korea</collectingCountry>
|
||
very rare or extinct. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF806FB8CEE12FBA5" box="[1997,2095,1083,1116]" name="Taiwan" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Taiwan</collectingCountry>
|
||
it became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF61FFBD5EC70FB7A" box="[2516,2637,1122,1155]" name="Vietnam" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
|
||
it is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF6AEFB3EEF86FB53" box="[2405,2491,1161,1194]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">China</collectingCountry>
|
||
there are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF965FB6FE139FB00" box="[1710,1796,1240,1273]" name="China" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">China</collectingCountry>
|
||
and all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAF6C3FA2AEF52FA47" box="[2312,2415,1437,1470]" name="Ireland" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Ireland</collectingCountry>
|
||
and 27,000 for
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F31E7642FFCBFFCAFA54FA7EE066FA1F" box="[1439,1627,1481,1510]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Great Britain</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3136559FFCBFFCAFA54FA4FEC70F9A5" pageId="14" pageNumber="421" type="bibRefCitation_list">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BB636D2FFCBFFCAFA54FA4FEC70F9A5" blockId="14.[1434,2641,257,1634]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">
|
||
<emphasis id="B97DEAC0FFCBFFCAFA54FA4FE005F9F4" bold="true" box="[1439,1592,1528,1549]" pageId="14" pageNumber="421">Bibliography.</emphasis>
|
||
Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |