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<document ID-DOI="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.444.7537" ID-GBIF-Dataset="e53fb8f2-2a76-4856-b154-1faef6ee81fd" ID-PMC="PMC4205731" ID-Pensoft-Pub="1313-2970-444-1" ID-PubMed="25349499" ID-ZBK="FB83BDD3958A456DBFEA9C6C28D3E4D5" ModsDocAuthor="" ModsDocDate="2014" ModsDocID="1313-2970-444-1" ModsDocOrigin="ZooKeys 444" ModsDocTitle="Shallow-water zoantharians (Cnidaria, Hexacorallia) from the Central Indo-Pacific" checkinTime="1451245266514" checkinUser="pensoft" docAuthor="Reimer, James D., Poliseno, Angelo &amp; Hoeksema, Bert W." docDate="2014" docId="6B4EDC9BB78C5FF2D99C215DF38698C2" docLanguage="en" docName="ZooKeys 444: 1-57" docOrigin="ZooKeys 444" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.444.7537" docTitle="Palythoa mutuki" docType="treatment" docVersion="3" lastPageNumber="9" masterDocId="FFCCA07FFFC4625F1C6AFFB4EC3BFFB7" masterDocTitle="Shallow-water zoantharians (Cnidaria, Hexacorallia) from the Central Indo-Pacific" masterLastPageNumber="57" masterPageNumber="1" pageNumber="8" updateTime="1668159458110" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
<mods:mods xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Shallow-water zoantharians (Cnidaria, Hexacorallia) from the Central Indo-Pacific</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Reimer, James D.</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Poliseno, Angelo</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Hoeksema, Bert W.</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
<mods:relatedItem type="host">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>ZooKeys</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:part>
<mods:date>2014</mods:date>
<mods:detail type="volume">
<mods:number>444</mods:number>
</mods:detail>
<mods:extent unit="page">
<mods:start>1</mods:start>
<mods:end>57</mods:end>
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<mods:location>
<mods:url>http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.444.7537</mods:url>
</mods:location>
<mods:classification>journal article</mods:classification>
<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.444.7537</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="Pensoft-Pub">1313-2970-444-1</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ZBK">FB83BDD3958A456DBFEA9C6C28D3E4D5</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ZooBank">FB83BDD3958A456DBFEA9C6C28D3E4D5</mods:identifier>
</mods:mods>
<treatment ID-GBIF-Taxon="152055736" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:6B4EDC9BB78C5FF2D99C215DF38698C2" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6B4EDC9BB78C5FF2D99C215DF38698C2" lastPageId="8" lastPageNumber="9" pageId="7" pageNumber="8">
<subSubSection pageId="7" pageNumber="8" type="multiple">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="8">Taxon classification Animalia Zoantharia Sphenopidae</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="7" pageNumber="8" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="8">
6.
<taxonomicName authority="Haddon &amp; Shackleton, 1891 b" class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="7" pageNumber="8" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa cf. mutuki (Haddon &amp; Shackleton, 1891b)</taxonomicName>
Figures 6A, B, 7
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="specimens examined">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<pageBreakToken pageId="8" pageNumber="9" start="start">Specimens</pageBreakToken>
examined
</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
(n=13): RMNH Coel 40458, harbor pier, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines, collected in 1976 by M.L. Esmeno; RMNH Coel 40459, harbor pier, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines, collected in 1976 by M.L. Esmeno; RMNH Coel. 40468, Rumphius Biohistorical Expedition station 29, Hitu, Ambon Bay, Ambon, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-3.634722">03°38'05&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="128.20999">128°12'36&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = intertidal, collected on November 28, 1990 by M.S.S. Lavaleye; RMNH Coel. 40470, Rumphius Biohistorical Expedition station 4, Leitimur, outer Ambon Bay, Wainitu, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-3.7027779">03°42'10&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="128.15416">128°09'15&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = littoral on old shipwreck, collected on November 7-8, 1990 by H. Strack; RMNH Coel. 40475, Rumphius Biohistorical Expedition station 27, Leitimur, south coast, Hutumuri, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-3.6972222">03°41'50&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="128.28334">128°17'00&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = intertidal, on November 26, 1990 by M.S.S. Lavaleye; RMNH Coel. 40514, Fauna Malesiana Maluku Expedition station MAL.15, Ambon Bay, south coast, cape west of Amahusu, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-3.7333333">03°44'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="128.13333">128°08'E</geoCoordinate>
), collected on November 16, 1996; RMNH Coel. 40528,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Snellius–II">Snellius-II</normalizedToken>
Expedition station 4.096, northeast Komodo, Komodo (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-8.483334">08°29'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="119.566666">119°34'E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = to 30 m, collected on October 26, 1984; RMNH Coel 40532,
<normalizedToken originalValue="NNM–LIPI–WWF">NNM-LIPI-WWF</normalizedToken>
<normalizedToken originalValue="Bali–Lombok">Bali-Lombok</normalizedToken>
Strait 2001 Expedition station BAL.09, Loloan Batu Agung, Sanur, eastern Bali (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-8.725277">08°43'31&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="115.26583">115°15'57&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = 10 to 15 m, collected on April 3, 2001 by B.W. Hoeksema; RMNH Coel. 40540,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Snellius–II">Snellius-II</normalizedToken>
Expedition station 4.010, near Tawiri, Ambon Bay, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-3.7">03°42'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="128.11667">128°07'E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = 1 to 5 m, collected on September 5, 1984; RMNH Coel. 40559,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Snellius–II">Snellius-II</normalizedToken>
Expedition sta 4.012, north Pulau Mai, Maisel Islands, Banda Sea (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-5.4666667">05°28'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="127.51667">127°31'E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = 0 to 1.5 m, collected on 07.09.1984; RMNH Coel. 40561,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Snellius–II">Snellius-II</normalizedToken>
Expedition station 4.133, east Pulau Tarupa Kecil, Taka Bone Rate (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-6.483333">06°29'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="121.13333">121°08'E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = 11 m, collected on September 26, 1984; RMNH Coel. 40562,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Snellius–II">Snellius-II</normalizedToken>
Expedition station 4.096, northeast Komodo, Komodo (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="925" value="-8.483334">08°29'S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="925" value="119.566666">119°34'E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = to 30 m, collected on September 20, 1984; RMNH Coel. 40741, Rumphius Biohistorical Expedition station 11, Leitimur, Tanjung Nasaniwe, Moluccas (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-3.786111">03°47'10&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="128.08888">128°05'20&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), depth = littoral, collected on November 12, 1990;
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="photographic records">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Photographic records</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
(n=2). Main coast, West Bali (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-8.11389">08°06'50&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="114.51111">114°30'40&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), May 22, 1998; west Pulau Bone Batang, South Sulawesi, Spermonde Archipelago (
<geoCoordinate direction="south" orientation="latitude" precision="15" value="-5.016667">05°01'00&quot;S</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="15" value="119.32083">119°19'15&quot;E</geoCoordinate>
), October 22, 1997.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="description">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Description.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Originally described from the Torres Strait, Australia, this species was redescribed in detail in
<bibRefCitation author="Ryland, JS" journalOrPublisher="Invertebrate Systematics" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="407 - 428" title="Revision for methods separating species of Protopalythoa (Hexacorallia: Zoanthidea) in the tropical west Pacific." url="10.1071/IS02008" volume="17" year="2003">Ryland and Lancaster (2003)</bibRefCitation>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Although all specimens in this grouping match with previously reported
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
based on sizes (average polyp height 9.6 mm, range 3-31 mm, average width 4.8 mm, range 2-8 mm, n=12 specimens) and overall morphology (
<normalizedToken originalValue="‘intermediae’">'intermediae'</normalizedToken>
or
<normalizedToken originalValue="‘liberae’">'liberae'</normalizedToken>
[
<bibRefCitation author="Pax, F" editor="Spengel, JW" journalOrPublisher="Fischer G, Jena" pageId="27" pageNumber="28" pagination="157 - 330" title="Studien an westindischen Actinien." volumeTitle="Ergebnisse einer Zoologischen Forschungreise nach westindien von Prof. W Kukenthal and Dr. Hartmeyer R im Jahre, 1907" year="1910">Pax 1910</bibRefCitation>
]; visible capitulary ridges on closed polyps [
<bibRefCitation author="Ryland, JS" journalOrPublisher="Invertebrate Systematics" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="407 - 428" title="Revision for methods separating species of Protopalythoa (Hexacorallia: Zoanthidea) in the tropical west Pacific." url="10.1071/IS02008" volume="17" year="2003">Ryland and Lancaster 2003</bibRefCitation>
]) (Figure 6B), we have identified all specimens in this study as
<normalizedToken originalValue="“cf.”">&quot;cf.&quot;</normalizedToken>
. Recent work has shown the presence of more than two closely related species groups within
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Science" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="87 - 94" title="Molecular evidence suggesting species in the zoanthid genera Palythoa and Protopalythoa (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) are congeneric." url="10.2108/zsj.23.87" volume="23" year="2006 b">Reimer et al. 2006b</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Studies" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" title="Phylogenetic analyses of shallow water zoanthids (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia) and their Symbiodinium spp. from Taiwan." volume="52" year="2013 a">2013a</bibRefCitation>
) that are exceedingly difficult to distinguish without molecular data. For this reason, we have preliminarily assigned
<normalizedToken originalValue="“cf.”">&quot;cf.&quot;</normalizedToken>
to these specimens.
</paragraph>
<caption pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Figure 6. Images of
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa cf. mutuki</taxonomicName>
from specimens and photographic records in this study. A
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa cf. mutuki</taxonomicName>
at west Pulau Bone Batang, South Sulawesi, Spermonde Archipelago, October 22, 1997 B
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa cf. mutuki</taxonomicName>
at main coast, West Bali, May 22, 1998 C
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Palythoa</taxonomicName>
sp. specimen RMNH Coel 40508, Fauna Malesiana Maluku Expedition station MAL.13, west coast near Larike, Ambon, Moluccas, depth = 3 m, collected on November 15, 1996; and D
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Palythoa</taxonomicName>
sp. specimen RMNH Coel 40512, Pelabuhan Ratu, Southwest Java, collected on October 13, 1977, by P.H. van Doesburg. Scales in C and D 1 cm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="distribution">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Distribution.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Regions recorded in this study (Figure 7). West Bali (4), eastern Bali (5), Komodo Island (8), Spermonde Archipelago (9), Taka Bone Rate (11), Maisel Islands (13), Moluccas (14), Cebu (21).</paragraph>
<caption pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Figure 7. Distribution of
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Palythoa</taxonomicName>
species from specimens and photographic records from this study.
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa cf. mutuki</taxonomicName>
specimens in red,
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Palythoa</taxonomicName>
sp. in green,
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa heliodiscus" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="heliodiscus">Palythoa cf. heliodiscus</taxonomicName>
in blue,
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa tuberculosa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="tuberculosa">Palythoa aff. tuberculosa</taxonomicName>
in yellow, and
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa tuberculosa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="tuberculosa">Palythoa tuberculosa</taxonomicName>
in pink. Region numbers correspond to locations given in
<normalizedToken originalValue="species’">species'</normalizedToken>
information. Boxes indicate presence of specimens (with or without photographic records), while circles indicate only photographic records. Overlapping symbols indicate the same region.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
Previous records.
<bibRefCitation author="Ryland, JS" journalOrPublisher="Invertebrate Systematics" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="407 - 428" title="Revision for methods separating species of Protopalythoa (Hexacorallia: Zoanthidea) in the tropical west Pacific." url="10.1071/IS02008" volume="17" year="2003">Ryland and Lancaster (2003)</bibRefCitation>
in their treatment of
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
also mentioned records from Fiji, and synonymized records of other species from Tuvalu (
<taxonomicName class="Hydrozoa" family="Zancleidae" genus="Gemmaria" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Gemmaria willeyi" order="Anthoathecata" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="willeyi">Gemmaria willeyi</taxonomicName>
Hill &amp; Whitelegge, 1898), eastern Australia (
<taxonomicName class="Hydrozoa" family="Zancleidae" genus="Gemmaria" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Gemmaria arenacea" order="Anthoathecata" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="arenacea">Gemmaria arenacea</taxonomicName>
Wilsmore, 1909;
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa yongei" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="yongei">Palythoa yongei</taxonomicName>
Carlgren, 1937;
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa australiensis" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="australiensis">Palythoa australiensis</taxonomicName>
Carlgren, 1950) and Singapore (
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa singaporensis" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="singaporensis">Palythoa singaporensis</taxonomicName>
Pax &amp;
<normalizedToken originalValue="Müller">Mueller</normalizedToken>
, 1956) with this species. However, asides from the specimens directly examined by Ryland and Lancaster, there is much confusion over the true identity of these species. For example,
<bibRefCitation author="Ryland, JS" journalOrPublisher="Invertebrate Systematics" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="407 - 428" title="Revision for methods separating species of Protopalythoa (Hexacorallia: Zoanthidea) in the tropical west Pacific." url="10.1071/IS02008" volume="17" year="2003">Ryland and Lancaster (2003)</bibRefCitation>
themselves state that
<taxonomicName class="Hydrozoa" family="Zancleidae" genus="Gemmaria" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Gemmaria willeyi" order="Anthoathecata" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="willeyi">Gemmaria willeyi</taxonomicName>
is likely a
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Zoanthidae" genus="Zoanthus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Zoanthus" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Zoanthus</taxonomicName>
species based on the figures in the original description. Ryland and Lancaster state &quot;Probably only the use of genetic methods, so successfully applied by Burnett et al. (1997), will settle identities over wide geographic areas&quot;.
</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
However, in the Pacific, records of this species with phylogenetic confirmation have previously been reported from the Great Barrier Reef in Australia (
<bibRefCitation author="Burnett, WJ" journalOrPublisher="Coral Reefs" pageId="24" pageNumber="25" pagination="55 - 68" title="Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) from the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait, Australia: systematics, evolution and a key to species." url="10.1007/s003380050060" volume="16" year="1997">Burnett et al. 1997</bibRefCitation>
), Singapore (
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Supplement" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="103 - 120" title="Preliminary molecular examination of zooxanthellate zoanthid (Hexacorallia, Zoantharia) and associated zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium spp.) diversity in Singapore. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology." volume="22" year="2009">Reimer and Todd 2009</bibRefCitation>
), to the south Pacific coast of Japan (e.g.
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Science" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="87 - 94" title="Molecular evidence suggesting species in the zoanthid genera Palythoa and Protopalythoa (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) are congeneric." url="10.2108/zsj.23.87" volume="23" year="2006 b">Reimer et al. 2006b</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Coral Reefs" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="399 - 410" title="Diversity and evolution in the zoanthid genus Palythoa (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia) utilizing nuclear ITS-rDNA." url="10.1007/s00338-007-0210-5" volume="26" year="2007 b">2007b</bibRefCitation>
), New Caledonia (
<bibRefCitation author="Sinniger, F" editor="Payri, C" journalOrPublisher="IRD Editions, Noumea" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="127 - 128" title="Zoanthids of New Caledonia." volumeTitle="Compendium of marine species from New Caledonia" year="2006">Sinniger 2006</bibRefCitation>
), and across to the Galapagos (
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Galapagos Research" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="14 - 19" title="Preliminary survey of zooxanthellate zoanthids (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia) of the Galapagos and associated symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium spp.)." volume="66" year="2009">Reimer and Hickman 2009</bibRefCitation>
), and thus it is known that this species has a very wide Indo-Pacific distribution.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="8" pageNumber="9" type="remarks">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">Remarks.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="9">
This species is likely common in Indonesia as in other regions such as Okinawa (
<bibRefCitation author="Irei, Y" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Studies" pageId="26" pageNumber="27" pagination="426 - 433" title="Distribution patterns of five zoanthid species in Okinawa Island, Japan." volume="50" year="2011">Irei et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
) and Taiwan (
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Studies" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="363 - 371" title="Shallow water brachycnemic zoanthids (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia) from Taiwan: a preliminary survey." volume="50" year="2011 c">Reimer et al. 2011c</bibRefCitation>
). However, species delineation in
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="genus">Palythoa</taxonomicName>
is confused due to the close phylogenetic relationships between
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa tuberculosa" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="tuberculosa">Palythoa tuberculosa</taxonomicName>
, and some other undescribed species, and a potential reticulate evolutionary history (
<bibRefCitation author="Reimer, JD" journalOrPublisher="Coral Reefs" pageId="28" pageNumber="29" pagination="399 - 410" title="Diversity and evolution in the zoanthid genus Palythoa (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia) utilizing nuclear ITS-rDNA." url="10.1007/s00338-007-0210-5" volume="26" year="2007 b">Reimer et al. 2007b</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation author="Shiroma, E" journalOrPublisher="Zoological Studies" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="182 - 194" title="Investigations into the reproductive patterns, ecology and morphology in the zoanthid genus Palythoa (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) in Okinawa, Japan." volume="49" year="2010">Shiroma and Reimer 2010</bibRefCitation>
, M. Mizuyama and J.D. Reimer unpubl. data). Furthermore, distinguishing
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
, from other, more distantly related species such as
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa heliodiscus" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="heliodiscus">Palythoa heliodiscus</taxonomicName>
based solely on morphology is often difficult (
<bibRefCitation author="Ryland, JS" journalOrPublisher="Invertebrate Systematics" pageId="29" pageNumber="30" pagination="407 - 428" title="Revision for methods separating species of Protopalythoa (Hexacorallia: Zoanthidea) in the tropical west Pacific." url="10.1071/IS02008" volume="17" year="2003">Ryland and Lancaster 2003</bibRefCitation>
). For this study, we have included all &quot;
<taxonomicName class="Anthozoa" family="Sphenopidae" genus="Palythoa" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Palythoa mutuki" order="Zoantharia" pageId="8" pageNumber="9" phylum="Cnidaria" rank="species" species="mutuki">Palythoa mutuki</taxonomicName>
-like&quot; specimens as one species group for convenience, although it is likely the specimens will encompass more than one species once the taxonomy of this genus is clarified.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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