291 lines
30 KiB
XML
291 lines
30 KiB
XML
<document ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6448815" ID-ISBN="978-84-16728-19-0" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6448815" approvalRequired="58" approvalRequired_for_document="1" approvalRequired_for_originalDoi="1" approvalRequired_for_taxonomicNames="39" approvalRequired_for_treatments="17" checkinTime="1635825784914" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2019" docId="03AD87FAFF92F67D89AC3F9DFB70FBD3" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Pleropus alecto Temminck 1837" docType="treatment" docVersion="3" lastPageNumber="145" masterDocId="FF94FF82FFC4F62A891E341CFFA5FF9B" masterDocTitle="Pteropodidae" masterLastPageNumber="162" masterPageNumber="16" pageNumber="144" updateTime="1656943967923" updateUser="diego">
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<mods:mods xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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<mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:title>Pteropodidae</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:name type="personal">
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<mods:role>
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<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
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</mods:role>
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<mods:namePart>Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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</mods:name>
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<mods:name type="personal">
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<mods:role>
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<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
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</mods:role>
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<mods:namePart>Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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</mods:name>
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<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
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<mods:relatedItem type="host">
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<mods:originInfo>
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<mods:dateIssued>2019</mods:dateIssued>
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<mods:dateOther type="pubDate">2019-10-31</mods:dateOther>
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<mods:publisher>Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
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<mods:place>
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<mods:placeTerm>Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
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</mods:place>
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</mods:originInfo>
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<mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:title>Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:part>
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<mods:extent unit="page">
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<mods:start>16</mods:start>
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<mods:end>162</mods:end>
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</mods:extent>
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</mods:part>
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</mods:relatedItem>
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<mods:classification>book chapter</mods:classification>
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<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6448815</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="ISBN">978-84-16728-19-0</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="Zenodo-Dep">6448815</mods:identifier>
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</mods:mods>
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<treatment LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03AD87FAFF92F67D89AC3F9DFB70FBD3" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03AD87FAFF92F67D89AC3F9DFB70FBD3" lastPageId="87" lastPageNumber="145" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<subSubSection box="[178,258,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="multiple">
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<paragraph blockId="86.[173,1068,2945,3072]" box="[178,258,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<heading box="[178,258,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<figureCitation box="[178,258,2945,2991]" captionStart="Plate 9: Pteropodidae" captionStartId="83.[119,148,3362,3387]" captionTargetBox="[11,2744,18,3661]" captionTargetPageId="82" captionText="144. Ornate Flying Fox (Pleropus ornatus), 145. Seram Flying Fox (Pteropus ocularis), 146. Great Flying Fox (Pteropus neohibernicus), 147. Wallacean Gray Flying Fox (Pleropus griseus), 148. Admiralty Flying Fox (Pteropus admiralitatum), 149. Philippine Gray Flying Fox (Pteropus speciosus), 150. Island Flying Fox (Pleropus hypomelanus), 151. Black-eared Flying Fox (Pteropus melanotus), 152. Black Flying Fox (Pleropus alecto), 153. Spectacled Flying Fox (Pteropus conspicillatus), 154. Geelvink Bay Flying Fox (Pteropus pohlei), 155. Marianas Flying Fox (Pteropus mariannus), 156. Palau Flying Fox (Pteropus pelewensis), 157. Pacific Flying Fox (Pteropus tonganus), 158. Kosrae Flying Fox (Pteropus ualanus), 159. Nicobar Flying Fox (Pteropus faunulus), 160. Ontong Java Flying Fox (Pteropus howensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6448891" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6448891/files/figure.png" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">152.</figureCitation>
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</heading>
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||
</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection box="[275,618,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="vernacular_names">
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||
<paragraph blockId="86.[173,1068,2945,3072]" box="[275,618,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<heading box="[275,618,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<vernacularName box="[275,618,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Black Flying Fox</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection box="[686,944,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="nomenclature">
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||
<paragraph blockId="86.[173,1068,2945,3072]" box="[686,944,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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||
<heading box="[686,944,2945,2991]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1837" box="[686,944,2945,2991]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="alecto">
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<emphasis box="[686,944,2945,2991]" italics="true" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Pleropus alecto</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="vernacular_names">
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||
<paragraph blockId="86.[173,1068,2945,3072]" box="[175,1067,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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||
<heading box="[175,1067,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[175,250,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">French:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[260,427,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Roussette alecto</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[448,538,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">German:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[548,750,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Schwarzer Flughund</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[771,862,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Spanish:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[871,1067,3009,3030]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Zorro volador negro</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[173,1068,2945,3072]" box="[174,609,3049,3070]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<heading box="[174,609,3049,3070]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[174,422,3049,3070]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Other common names:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[431,609,3049,3070]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Central Flying Fox</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[174,327,3115,3148]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
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<taxonomicName authority="Temminck, 1837" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1837" box="[342,777,3115,3148]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="alecto">Pleropus alecto Temminck, 1837</taxonomicName>
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,
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<materialsCitation pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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“le district de Menado dans I'ile
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<collectingRegion box="[1273,1379,3115,3148]" country="Indonesia" name="Sulawesi Utara" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Célebes</collectingRegion>
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[=
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<collectingRegion box="[213,430,3159,3188]" country="Indonesia" name="Sulawesi Utara" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">North Sulawesi</collectingRegion>
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],”
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<collectingCountry box="[464,602,3159,3188]" name="Indonesia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Indonesia</collectingCountry>
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.
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</materialsCitation>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection box="[174,1160,3198,3227]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="discussion">
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" box="[174,1160,3198,3227]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1837" box="[174,356,3198,3227]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="alecto">Pteropus alecto</taxonomicName>
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is in the
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<taxonomicName box="[479,563,3198,3227]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="griseus">griseus</taxonomicName>
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species group. Four subspecies recognized.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="synonymic_list">
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<caption inLine="true" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" targetBox="[1233,1237,1071,1096]" targetPageId="87">
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" box="[174,566,3238,3267]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[174,566,3238,3267]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" box="[175,971,3273,3306]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authority="Temminck, 1837" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1837" box="[175,544,3273,3306]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="alecto" subSpecies="alecto">P.a.alectoTemminck,1837—Sulawesi,includingSelayarI.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authority="Matschie, 1899" authorityName="Matschie" authorityYear="1899" box="[175,570,3312,3345]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="alecto" subSpecies="aterrimus">P.a.aterrimusMatschie,1899—EJava,Bawean,andLombokIs.Theserecordshavenotbeenconfirmedrecently.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[172,1380,3115,3471]" lastBlockId="86.[2063,2656,272,699]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authority="Peters, 1868" authorityName="Peters" authorityYear="1868" box="[175,520,3399,3424]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="alecto" subSpecies="gouldii">P. a. gouldii Peters, 1868</taxonomicName>
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— N & E
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<collectingCountry box="[666,790,3399,3424]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
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||
(including several islands on the N & E coasts: Tiwi, Groote Eylandt, Torres Strait, Magnetic, Carlisle, Percy, North Keppel, and Fraser) and coastal plain of S New
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<collectingCountry box="[2063,2165,312,345]" name="Guinea-Bissau" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Guinea</collectingCountry>
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||
(Western and Central provinces in P.a. New
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<collectingCountry box="[2233,2340,351,384]" name="Guinea-Bissau" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Guinea</collectingCountry>
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); in P.a. New
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<collectingCountry name="Guinea-Bissau" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Guinea</collectingCountry>
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it might also occur in Gulf Province and offshore islands off S coast E to Yule I.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[2063,2656,272,699]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<taxonomicName authority="K. Andersen, 1908" authorityName="K. Andersen" authorityYear="1908" box="[2063,2461,478,503]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Pleropus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="alecto" subSpecies="morio">P a. morio K. Andersen, 1908</taxonomicName>
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— Lesser Sundas (Sumba and Savu Is).
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</paragraph>
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</caption>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="description">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="86.[2063,2656,272,699]" lastBlockId="86.[1449,2659,706,3462]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[2063,2342,548,581]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
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Head-body
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<quantity metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.33" metricValueMax="2.8" metricValueMin="1.86" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="233.0" valueMax="280.0" valueMin="186.0">186- 280 mm</quantity>
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(tailless), ear
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<quantity box="[2371,2517,592,621]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.3" metricValueMax="3.7" metricValueMin="2.9" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="33.0" valueMax="37.0" valueMin="29.0">29-37 mm</quantity>
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, hindfoot
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||
<quantity box="[2063,2214,631,660]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.75" metricValueMax="5.2" metricValueMin="4.3" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="47.5" valueMax="52.0" valueMin="43.0">43-52 mm</quantity>
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, forearm
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||
<quantity box="[2362,2544,631,660]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.72" metricValueMax="1.91" metricValueMin="1.53" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="172.0" valueMax="191.0" valueMin="153.0">153-191 mm</quantity>
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; weight
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||
<quantity box="[2064,2212,666,699]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="7.35" metricValueMax="8.8" metricValueMin="5.9" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="g" value="735.0" valueMax="880.0" valueMin="590.0">590-880 g</quantity>
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||
. Greatest lengths of skulls are
|
||
<quantity box="[1451,1594,706,739]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="6.85" metricValueMax="7.0" metricValueMin="6.7" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="68.5" valueMax="70.0" valueMin="67.0">67-70 mm</quantity>
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and tibias
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||
<quantity box="[1742,1889,706,739]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="8.55" metricValueMax="9.0" metricValueMin="8.1" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="mm" value="85.5" valueMax="90.0" valueMin="81.0">81-90 mm</quantity>
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. The Black Flying Fox is dark, with broad heavy rostrum and strong sagittal crest. Nominate form in
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<collectingRegion box="[2075,2189,746,779]" country="Indonesia" name="Sulawesi Utara" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Sulawesi</collectingRegion>
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is the largest subspecies; moro is the smallest. Australian subspecies gouldii is similar to the nominate
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<taxonomicName box="[2395,2565,785,818]" form="except" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" rank="form">form except</taxonomicName>
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||
that it has longer fur, narrower rostrum, and weaker dentition. Eyes are relatively large, with chocolate-brown irises. Ears are somewhat broad, with rounded or slightly attenuated tips. Head and most of body are dark; mantle is dark brown or chestnut to maroon in some individuals. Fur of mantle is rigid and oily in males and generally spreads outward. Base of fur is black. Body pelageis slightly woolly and black to dark brown, with sprinkles of white or bufty hairs. Fur is short and closely adpressed on back, with fur on sides of back particularly short. Tibia is naked. Rump is sometimes washed with deep reddish brown.
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||
<collectingRegion box="[1622,1717,1100,1133]" country="France" name="Centre" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Center</collectingRegion>
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of interfemoral region is developed. Dentition is weak. Canines are slender. Premolars do not have basal ledges (except in subspecies aterrimus, where there is some trace of posterior basal ledge in P° and P,). Cheekteeth are short and broad.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<paragraph blockId="86.[1449,2659,706,3462]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
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<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="biology_ecology">
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||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[1450,1561,1219,1252]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Habitat.</emphasis>
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Coastal tropical and tropical moist broadleaf forests, mangroves, swamp forests, eucalypt open forests, bamboo groves, savanna woodlands, and modified landscapes (e.g. orchards or urban areas) from sea level up to elevations of ¢.
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||
<quantity box="[2474,2583,1298,1331]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.0" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="m" value="1000.0">1000 m</quantity>
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. The Black Flying Fox prefers coastal areas
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="food_feeding">
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<emphasis bold="true" box="[1450,1716,1381,1410]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
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The Black Flying Fox feeds on fruits, flowers, nectar, and pollen. Major dietary items in
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<collectingCountry box="[1766,1893,1416,1449]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
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, including flowers, come from at least 16 plant genera in 12 families including figs (
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<taxonomicName box="[1853,1922,1456,1489]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Ficus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Ficus</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName box="[1937,2081,1456,1489]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Moraceae</taxonomicName>
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). In urban settings in Brisbane,
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<collectingCountry box="[2522,2649,1456,1489]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
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, it fed on
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<taxonomicName box="[1578,1646,1495,1528]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Ficus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Ficus</taxonomicName>
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; Oreodoxa and
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<taxonomicName box="[1852,1951,1495,1528]" class="Liliopsida" family="Arecaceae" genus="Syagrus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Arecales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Syagrus</taxonomicName>
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(both
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<taxonomicName box="[2046,2198,1495,1528]" class="Liliopsida" family="Arecaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Arecales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Arecaceae</taxonomicName>
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);
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<taxonomicName box="[2226,2292,1495,1528]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Cannabaceae" genus="Celtis" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Celtis</taxonomicName>
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(
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<taxonomicName box="[2313,2508,1495,1528]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Cannabaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Cannabaceae</taxonomicName>
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);
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<taxonomicName box="[2537,2658,1495,1528]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Araliaceae" genus="Schefflera" kingdom="Plantae" order="Apiales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Schefflera</taxonomicName>
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(
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<taxonomicName box="[1463,1616,1539,1568]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Araliaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Apiales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Araliaceae</taxonomicName>
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);
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<taxonomicName box="[1648,1782,1539,1568]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Anacardiaceae" genus="Mangifera" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Mangifera</taxonomicName>
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(
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<taxonomicName box="[1807,2021,1539,1568]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Anacardiaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Anacardiaceae</taxonomicName>
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); and Eriobotrya (
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<taxonomicName box="[2273,2410,1539,1568]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Rosaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Rosaceae</taxonomicName>
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). It also ate nectar and pollen of native hybrid
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[1901,2010,1579,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" genus="Grevillea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Grevillea</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[2032,2188,1579,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Proteaceae</taxonomicName>
|
||
) and
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[2280,2425,1579,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Myrtaceae" genus="Callistemon" kingdom="Plantae" order="Myrtales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Callistemon</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[2448,2600,1579,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Myrtaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Myrtales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Myrtaceae</taxonomicName>
|
||
). In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1451,1592,1614,1647]" name="Indonesia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Indonesia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, it eats nectar from durian (
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[2001,2077,1614,1647]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Malvaceae" genus="Durio" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malvales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Durio</taxonomicName>
|
||
zibethinus,
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[2233,2384,1614,1647]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Malvaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malvales" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Malvaceae</taxonomicName>
|
||
). It feeds primarily at canopies in rainforest sites, demonstrating some site fidelity although visitation to foraging sites can shift with seasonal resource shifts. Gut passage rate of under an hour combined with flying between foraging and roosting sites suggests that it is likely an important seed disperser for disjunct forest fragments.
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="breeding">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="86.[1449,2659,706,3462]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
|
||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[1450,1585,1811,1844]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Breeding.</emphasis>
|
||
The Black Flying Fox breeds seasonally and reproduces once a year. Courtship and mating occur in March-April, primarily during the day. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2431,2558,1850,1883]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, males have been recorded courting one female at a time but mate in polygynous groups of one male and up to four females. A male initiates courtship by approaching and sniffing a female with his head angled forward toward her urogenital region; the female can respond by remaining in position or avoid the male by turning away or fending him off. The male licks the vagina if the female is not resisting and persistently does so for several seconds to a minute if the female is resistant. The male then moves behind the female to align himself for copulation, restrains her by biting fur on her scruff, and restrains her wings with his own. Females often struggle and vocalize during copulation, at times releasing their foothold on a branch and grasping the male’s legs for support. Copulation ends after a few seconds to more than three minutes with the release of the female, and males make a loud call. Copulation can occur multiple times. The entire courtship sequence ends when the pair separates and each starts to groom their own genital regions. Young can interfere with courtship to attempt to suckle from their mothers and can loosen the hold of males. Lactating and non-lactating females were observed in single pairs and polygynous groups. Females give birth to one young in October-December in large maternity colonies. Pregnancy lasts c.6 months, and lactation lasts 3-6 months. Females reach sexual maturity by two years of age. The Black Flying Fox hybridizes with the Gray-headed Flying Fox (
|
||
<taxonomicName authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[2323,2526,2561,2594]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="poliocephalus">P. poliocephalus</taxonomicName>
|
||
) and the Spectacled Flying Fox (
|
||
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gould" authorityYear="1850" box="[1779,1985,2601,2634]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="conspicillatus">P. conspicillatus</taxonomicName>
|
||
) in
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2042,2169,2601,2634]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="activity">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="86.[1449,2659,706,3462]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
|
||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[1449,1680,2640,2673]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
|
||
The Black Flying Fox is nocturnal, leaving roosting sites around dusk to forage and returning around dawn. It roosts in foliage, but there is one example ofit roosting in a natural limestone tower in northern
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2138,2262,2719,2752]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="86" pageNumber="144" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="86.[1449,2659,706,3462]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">
|
||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[1451,2133,2759,2792]" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
|
||
The Black Flying Fox is generally gregarious and roosts colonially. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1905,2175,2798,2831]" name="Papua New Guinea" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Papua New Guinea</collectingCountry>
|
||
, colonies can contain several hundred up to 3000 individuals. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1910,2032,2838,2871]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, total population estimates vary widely (e.g. 108,000-250,000 individuals in 2016). In Sulawesi, it is the most common flying fox, but the population is threatened by repeated hunting events, and no total population estimates are available. Genetic evidence suggests that the Sulawesi nominate form is a single panmictic population. Using satellite telemetry, it has been recorded to fly
|
||
<quantity box="[2559,2655,2995,3028]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.5" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="km" value="150.0">150 km</quantity>
|
||
between
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1575,1840,3035,3068]" name="Papua New Guinea" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Papua New Guinea</collectingCountry>
|
||
and
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1912,2048,3035,3068]" name="Indonesia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Indonesia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, with a maximum of
|
||
<quantity box="[2344,2445,3035,3068]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.2" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="km" value="220.0">220 km</quantity>
|
||
covered in two days between roosts. Average nightly movement between roosts is
|
||
<quantity box="[2339,2424,3074,3107]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.0" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="km" value="20.0">20 km</quantity>
|
||
. Movements vary greatly, and some individuals remain relatively sedentary where food is abundant. In Brisbane, individuals moved ¢.
|
||
<quantity box="[1815,1903,3153,3186]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.6" pageId="86" pageNumber="144" unit="km" value="26.0">26 km</quantity>
|
||
during nightly foraging. It roosts with other flying fox species, with some degree of physical segregation among species. Colonies leave roosts in a loose stream. During the day,it rests at roosts and exhibits typical pteropodine activity, such as wing flapping and occasional conspecific territorial interactions. In a study in
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1450,1572,3311,3344]" name="Australia" pageId="86" pageNumber="144">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, active territorial defense was recorded by late January, with males scent-marking territories by rubbing neck glands on branches and tree trunks throughout the day. Territorial defense including displays (vocalizations or brief pursuits) or physical contact (wrestling or wing slapping) occurs in response to encroachment on defended branches.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="87" pageNumber="145" type="conservation">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="87.[112,1326,274,1100]" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">
|
||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[115,461,274,307]" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
|
||
CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[280,405,313,346]" name="Australia" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
the Black Flying Fox has recently expanded on eastern coast as far south as around Sydney. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[563,697,353,386]" name="Indonesia" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Indonesia</collectingCountry>
|
||
,it is threatened primarily by intensive, unsustainable hunting and habitat loss of roosting and foraging sites. Bushmeat market in Manado, northern
|
||
<collectingRegion box="[426,544,432,465]" country="Indonesia" name="Sulawesi Utara" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Sulawesi</collectingRegion>
|
||
, extends outward to find source populations to supply an estimated
|
||
<quantity box="[305,420,471,504]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.0" pageId="87" pageNumber="145" unit="t" value="100.0">100 tons</quantity>
|
||
of Black Flying Foxes, importing from other Indonesian islands to satisfy demand. No national laws protect the Black Flying Fox. In New
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1178,1281,511,544]" name="Guinea-Bissau" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Guinea</collectingCountry>
|
||
, it is primarily threatened by loss of foraging and roosting habitat along with hunting. In
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[155,275,589,622]" name="Australia" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
,it is threatened by habitat conversion of foraging and roosting habitat to agriculture, pastureland, and urban development. Additional threats include electrocution on powerlines, entanglement on barbed wire or power lines, persecution by humans, and disturbance of maternity colonies. There has been an increase in persecution of flying foxes due to public concerns about diseases, smell, and noise associated with large colonies, particularly as they move into areas where they were rare. The Black Flying Fox is increasingly exposed to extreme heat events that can lead to high rates of mortality, especially for young.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="87" pageNumber="145" type="bibRefCitation_list">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="87.[112,1326,274,1100]" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">
|
||
<emphasis bold="true" box="[113,261,913,938]" pageId="87" pageNumber="145">Bibliography.</emphasis>
|
||
Almeida etal. (2014), Andersen (1912b), Bergmans & Rozendaal (1988), Bonaccorso (1998), Breed et al. (2010), Churchill (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Flannery (1995a), Fox (2006), Fox et al. (2008), Lavery et al. (2012), Lee et al. (2005), Markus (2002), Markus & Hall (2004), McWilliam (1986), Palmer & Woinarski (1999), Palmer et al. (2000), Ratcliffe (1932), Roberts et al. (2017), Sheherazade & Tsang (2015), Sheherazade et al. (2019), Simmons (2005), Stager & Hall (1983), Vardon & Tidemann (1998), Webb &Tidemann (1995), Welbergen etal. (2008).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |