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<document id="BB7AAA186028880378CEF9E19EFF7D92" ID-DOI="10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.07.019" ID-ISSN="1873-3700" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10488908" IM.bibliography_approvedBy="jonas" IM.illustrations_approvedBy="jonas" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="jonas" IM.metadata_approvedBy="felipe" IM.tables_approvedBy="jonas" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="jonas" IM.treatments_approvedBy="jonas" checkinTime="1704956502517" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="McDougal, Owen M., Heenan, Peter B., Jaksons, Peter, Sansom, Catherine E., Smallfield, Bruce M., Perry, Nigel B. &amp; van Klink, John W." docDate="2015" docId="0388878CFFA3DF65A83F4C3C9023FA24" docLanguage="en" docName="Phytochemistry.118.9-16.pdf" docOrigin="Phytochemistry 118" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.07.019" docStyle="DocumentStyle:9E596C34F4E94307D29315B03ACE1007.6:Phytochemistry.2014-2019.journal_article" docStyleId="9E596C34F4E94307D29315B03ACE1007" docStyleName="Phytochemistry.2014-2019.journal_article" docStyleVersion="6" docTitle="Sophora microphylla Aiton" docType="treatment" docVersion="4" lastPageNumber="14" masterDocId="FFB1FFF4FFA7DF60A84D4804921BFFD0" masterDocTitle="Alkaloid variation in New Zealand kōwhai, Sophora species" masterLastPageNumber="16" masterPageNumber="9" pageNumber="13" updateTime="1705627186788" updateUser="jonas">
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<mods:title id="E563B51A0CA3DCF5D3F64FED73349333">Alkaloid variation in New Zealand kōwhai, Sophora species</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="0F65F3B03243D2DEC0038CE7CE5BC773">McDougal, Owen M.</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation id="DDD449A980C49DFBCD622C5A3B2B6D25">Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Boise State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725 - 1520, USA</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="50835C19A5EBCA60A812F2732F4E9845">Heenan, Peter B.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="38098204BA0253EC8853337A6E29E833">Jaksons, Peter</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="7D524D0ABC3734EBACFEAA3E2FC3FC18">Sansom, Catherine E.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="749A06AF54E914AA06406AC037916217">Smallfield, Bruce M.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="03FD487E5B8354AAF34D92F89674FE30">Perry, Nigel B.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="7B0FF138F56442E0C11328A295C1E613">van Klink, John W.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:title id="9B67F6FACDC0F0EA69E8A4094B3C31FD">Phytochemistry</mods:title>
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<heading id="D0D681F6FFA3DF64A83F4C3C9062FB9C" box="[114,633,1080,1100]" fontSize="36" level="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" reason="3">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64A83F4C3C9062FB9C" box="[114,633,1080,1100]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
2.4. Alkaloid distribution in
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA3DF64A9CD4C3C9012FB9C" ID-CoL="6Z6FT" authority="Aiton" authorityName="Aiton" box="[384,521,1080,1100]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Sophora" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="microphylla">S. microphylla</taxonomicName>
plant parts
</emphasis>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C33B6511FFA3DF65A8DC4C759023FA24" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="14" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A8DC4C7591E5FED1" blockId="4.[113,784,1137,1296]" lastBlockId="4.[831,1501,182,1290]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
Our comparison of the leaf and seed alkaloid compositions across kōwhai (see above) showed that leaf samples contained greater relative amounts of biosynthetic intermediates (A, DHM, and L), versus seed, which generally contained higher amounts of biosynthetic end products: C, NMC, and M (
<tableCitation id="C6A30321FFA3DF64AA0E4CE4908BFB23" box="[579,656,1248,1267]" captionStart="Table 1" captionStartId="2.[114,158,183,197]" captionTargetPageId="2" captionText="Table 1 Alkaloids previously reported from New Zealand Sophora." pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Table 1</tableCitation>
and
<figureCitation id="131A2A1FFFA3DF64AA844CE49119FB23" box="[713,770,1248,1267]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="1.[572,598,1038,1052]" captionTargetBox="[352,1203,181,1007]" captionTargetId="graphics-766@1.[684,923,505,635]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="Fig. 1. Structures of alkaloids identified in Sophora." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10488910" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10488910/files/figure.png" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Fig. 1</figureCitation>
). These findings are consistent with reports of quinolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis beginning from lysine, occurring in leaf, and metabolic transformation to biosynthetic end-points taking place in seed (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA3DF64AB3648EA91EAFED1" author="Wink, M." box="[891,1009,238,257]" editor="Bernays, E. A." journalOrPublisher="CRC Press, Boca Raton" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" pagination="131 - 166" refId="ref9505" refString="Wink, M., 1992. The role of quinolizidine alkaloids in plant - insect interactions. In: Bernays, E. A. (Ed.), Insect - Plant Interactions, vol. 4. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 131 - 166." title="The role of quinolizidine alkaloids in plant - insect interactions" type="book chapter" volumeTitle="Insect - Plant Interactions, vol. 4" year="1992">Wink, 1992</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64AB13490E9716FB65" blockId="4.[831,1501,182,1290]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
We examined this further by analysing alkaloids from the root, bark, twig, leaf and seed from two individual
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA3DF64AD54492197B8FEE9" box="[1305,1443,293,313]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Sophora" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="microphylla">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64AD54492197B8FEE9" box="[1305,1443,293,313]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">S. microphylla</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
trees (samples m15 and m19). Integration of the GC-FID alkaloid absolute peak area allowed reasonable approximation of total alkaloid quantities. This was a viable approach because the mass of plant material extracted was within ±0.5% across all samples and the extraction method was consistent for all samples as verified by check, control, and blank samples. The results of the relative alkaloid quantity comparison by plant part are presented in
<tableCitation id="C6A30321FFA3DF64AD3C49ED97A1FE2C" box="[1393,1466,489,508]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="4.[114,158,1345,1359]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Table 4 S. microphylla plant parts alkaloid (mg/g*) composition as determined by GC-FID." pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Table 4</tableCitation>
for two trees that were found to contain among the highest alkaloid content in the leaves of the 56 leaf extracts studied. In general, seeds contained the highest concentration of alkaloids (supportive of Section 2.3, above). Leaves and twig samples had the next highest concentration of alkaloids followed by bark, with the root samples having the lowest amounts of total alkaloids. The findings presented here reinforce reports in the literature that alkaloids are predominantly concentrated in seed (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA3DF64ACA04ACC9760FD0B" author="Connor" box="[1261,1403,712,731]" firstAuthor="Connor" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" refId="ref8044" refString="Connor, H. E., 1977. The Poisonous Plants of New Zealand. Government Printer, Wellington." type="book" year="1977">Connor, 1977</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA3DF64ADC54ACD91CAFD27" author="Burrows and Tyrl" firstAuthor="Burrows" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" refId="ref7867" refString="Burrows, G. E., Tyrl, R. J., 2001. Toxic plants of North America. Iowa State Press, Ames IA." type="book" year="2001">Burrows and Tyrl, 2001</bibRefCitation>
). Compositional analysis of the
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA3DF64AD554AE797C7FD27" box="[1304,1500,739,759]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Sophora" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="microphylla" subSpecies="plant">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64AD554AE797BAFD27" box="[1304,1441,739,759]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">S. microphylla</emphasis>
plant
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parts showed that the alkaloids differentially accumulated in the various plant parts (
<tableCitation id="C6A30321FFA3DF64AC474B189648FCFF" box="[1034,1107,796,815]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="4.[114,158,1345,1359]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Table 4 S. microphylla plant parts alkaloid (mg/g*) composition as determined by GC-FID." pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Table 4</tableCitation>
). A MANOVA confirmed the significant (
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64AB0A4B339148FC9B" box="[839,851,823,843]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">P</emphasis>
&lt;0.01) differences in plant parts alkaloid composition, with a univariate ANOVA test for each alkaloid showing significant differences in the amounts of anagyrine, ammodendrine, cytisine, dehydrolupanine, lupanine and
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64AC314B8E9690FC4E" box="[1148,1163,906,926]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">N</emphasis>
-methyl cytisine. A canonical discriminate analysis on this data showed clear groups (
<figureCitation id="131A2A1FFFA3DF64ADD74BA397CFFC6B" box="[1434,1492,935,955]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="5.[455,481,902,916]" captionTargetBox="[300,1261,182,872]" captionTargetId="figure-680@5.[299,1262,181,873]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Fig. 2. Canonical discriminant Analysis of alkaloids in S. microphylla plant parts." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10488912" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10488912/files/figure.png" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Fig. 2</figureCitation>
) and the contribution of each alkaloid to the dataset variation. The first canonical variable explained 60% of the variation; the second canonical variable explained 32% of the variation. The canonical structure coefficients (as indicated by the arrows on
<figureCitation id="131A2A1FFFA3DF64ADD74C1397CEFBFA" box="[1434,1493,1047,1066]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="5.[455,481,902,916]" captionTargetBox="[300,1261,182,872]" captionTargetId="figure-680@5.[299,1262,181,873]" captionTargetPageId="5" captionText="Fig. 2. Canonical discriminant Analysis of alkaloids in S. microphylla plant parts." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10488912" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10488912/files/figure.png" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Fig. 2</figureCitation>
) show that the variations in anagyrine and lupanine have the highest impact on the first canonical variable, followed by dehydrolupanine and matrine. For the second canonical variable
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64AB724C829155FB4A" box="[831,846,1158,1178]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">N</emphasis>
-methylcytisine and cytisine have the highest contributions, followed by dehydrolupanine and then matrine.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF65AB134CBA92F8FB11" blockId="4.[831,1501,182,1290]" lastBlockId="5.[87,758,975,1524]" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="14" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
The quantitative analysis of total alkaloid content across all plant parts demonstrates that alkaloids are concentrated in the seeds, with minimal amounts in the root and bark, and intermediate quantities in the twig and leaf (
<tableCitation id="C6A30321FFA2DF65AA654BCB9069FC32" box="[552,626,975,994]" captionStart="Table 4" captionStartId="4.[114,158,1345,1359]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Table 4 S. microphylla plant parts alkaloid (mg/g*) composition as determined by GC-FID." pageId="5" pageNumber="14">Table 4</tableCitation>
). Plants that produce quinolizidine alkaloids as allelochemicals in their leaves and seeds tend to preferentially produce antifeedant and antifungal phenolics (flavonoids, isoflavonoids, anthocyanins, etc.) in their roots to deter insect herbivores (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA2DF65A9FD4C3A9033FB82" author="Wink, M." box="[432,552,1086,1106]" editor="Bernays, E. A." journalOrPublisher="CRC Press, Boca Raton" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" pagination="131 - 166" refId="ref9505" refString="Wink, M., 1992. The role of quinolizidine alkaloids in plant - insect interactions. In: Bernays, E. A. (Ed.), Insect - Plant Interactions, vol. 4. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 131 - 166." title="The role of quinolizidine alkaloids in plant - insect interactions" type="book chapter" volumeTitle="Insect - Plant Interactions, vol. 4" year="1992">Wink, 1992</bibRefCitation>
). A complementary phytochemical investigation of phenolics produced by kōwhai is underway. This may validate the prediction that the roots produce allelochemicals equivalent to, or in excess of, those produced in the leaf and seed.
</paragraph>
<caption id="DF5E6612FFA3DF64A83F4D4590ECFAB6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" startId="4.[114,158,1345,1359]" targetBox="[136,1478,1403,1928]" targetIsTable="true" targetPageId="4" targetType="table">
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A83F4D4592B5FA9F" blockId="4.[113,759,1345,1383]" box="[114,174,1345,1359]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64A83F4D4592B5FA9F" bold="true" box="[114,174,1345,1359]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Table 4</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A83C4D5390ECFAB6" blockId="4.[113,759,1345,1383]" box="[113,759,1364,1383]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA3DF64A83C4D539310FAB6" box="[113,267,1367,1383]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Sophora" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="microphylla" subSpecies="plant">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64A83C4D5392C7FAB6" box="[113,220,1367,1383]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">S. microphylla</emphasis>
plant
</taxonomicName>
parts alkaloid (mg/g
<superScript id="7C549BD2FFA3DF64A9FD4D5093ACFA8E" attach="left" box="[432,439,1364,1374]" fontSize="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">*</superScript>
) composition as determined by GC-FID.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A8C54D7B976FF858" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<table id="F921C43AFFA3209FA8C54D7F97DDF858" box="[136,1478,1403,1928]" gridcols="12" gridrows="11" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54D7F97DDFA5D" box="[136,1478,1403,1421]" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54D7F92B4FA5D" box="[136,175,1403,1421]" gridcol="0" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Part</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4D7F933BFA5D" box="[247,288,1403,1421]" gridcol="1" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Plant</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4D7F938FFA5D" box="[359,404,1403,1421]" gridcol="2" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64A92A4D7A936AFA5D" box="[359,369,1406,1421]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">n</emphasis>
= 3
</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964D7F93E5FA5D" box="[475,510,1403,1421]" gridcol="3" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">A</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094D7F9073FA5D" box="[580,616,1403,1421]" gridcol="4" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">AN</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34D7F90C0FA5D" box="[686,731,1403,1421]" gridcol="5" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">C</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4D7F915EFA5D" box="[802,837,1403,1421]" gridcol="6" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">DHL</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14D7F91B4FA5D" box="[908,943,1403,1421]" gridcol="7" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">L</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84D7F9638FA5D" box="[1013,1059,1403,1421]" gridcol="8" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">M</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244D7F968CFA5D" box="[1129,1175,1403,1421]" gridcol="9" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">NMC</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904D7F971BFA5D" box="[1245,1280,1403,1421]" gridcol="10" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">S</th>
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4D7F97DDFA5D" box="[1351,1478,1403,1421]" gridcol="11" gridrow="0" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Total alkaloids#</th>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54DA497DDFA15" box="[136,1478,1440,1477]" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54DA492B4FA15" box="[136,175,1440,1477]" gridcol="0" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Seed</th>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4DA4933BFA15" box="[247,288,1440,1477]" gridcol="1" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4DA4938FFA15" box="[359,404,1440,1477]" gridcol="2" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964DA493E5FA15" box="[475,510,1440,1477]" gridcol="3" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.55 0.05</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094DA49073FA15" box="[580,616,1440,1477]" gridcol="4" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.60 0.05</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34DA490C0FA15" box="[686,731,1440,1477]" gridcol="5" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">26.66 1.93</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4DA4915EFA15" box="[802,837,1440,1477]" gridcol="6" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.36 0.06</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14DA491B4FA15" box="[908,943,1440,1477]" gridcol="7" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">2.31 0.37</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84DA49638FA15" box="[1013,1059,1440,1477]" gridcol="8" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">5.16 1.15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244DA4968CFA15" box="[1129,1175,1440,1477]" gridcol="9" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">11.52 0.69</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904DA4971BFA15" box="[1245,1280,1440,1477]" gridcol="10" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4DA497DDFA15" box="[1351,1478,1440,1477]" gridcol="11" gridrow="1" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">50.25 2.53</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54DCA97DDFA23" box="[136,1478,1486,1523]" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" rowspan-0="1">
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4DCA933BFA23" box="[247,288,1486,1523]" gridcol="1" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4DCA938FFA23" box="[359,404,1486,1523]" gridcol="2" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964DCA93E5FA23" box="[475,510,1486,1523]" gridcol="3" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.24 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094DCA9073FA23" box="[580,616,1486,1523]" gridcol="4" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.43 0.08</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34DCA90C0FA23" box="[686,731,1486,1523]" gridcol="5" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">22.09 0.43</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4DCA915EFA23" box="[802,837,1486,1523]" gridcol="6" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.13 0.03</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14DCA91B4FA23" box="[908,943,1486,1523]" gridcol="7" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.11 0.10</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84DCA9638FA23" box="[1013,1059,1486,1523]" gridcol="8" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">14.27 2.79</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244DCA968CFA23" box="[1129,1175,1486,1523]" gridcol="9" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.66 0.37</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904DCA971BFA23" box="[1245,1280,1486,1523]" gridcol="10" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4DCA97DDFA23" box="[1351,1478,1486,1523]" gridcol="11" gridrow="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">41.54 2.34</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54E0197DDF9FA" box="[136,1478,1541,1578]" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54E0192B4F9FA" box="[136,175,1541,1578]" gridcol="0" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Leaf</th>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4E01933BF9FA" box="[247,288,1541,1578]" gridcol="1" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4E01938FF9FA" box="[359,404,1541,1578]" gridcol="2" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964E0193E5F9FA" box="[475,510,1541,1578]" gridcol="3" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.48 0.11</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094E019073F9FA" box="[580,616,1541,1578]" gridcol="4" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.98 0.19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34E0190C0F9FA" box="[686,731,1541,1578]" gridcol="5" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.80 0.28</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4E01915EF9FA" box="[802,837,1541,1578]" gridcol="6" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">5.45 1.46</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14E0191B4F9FA" box="[908,943,1541,1578]" gridcol="7" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.74 0.63</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84E019638F9FA" box="[1013,1059,1541,1578]" gridcol="8" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.39 0.10</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244E01968CF9FA" box="[1129,1175,1541,1578]" gridcol="9" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.02 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904E01971BF9FA" box="[1245,1280,1541,1578]" gridcol="10" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.01 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4E0197DDF9FA" box="[1351,1478,1541,1578]" gridcol="11" gridrow="3" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">11.20 2.63</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54E3797DDF988" box="[136,1478,1587,1624]" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" rowspan-0="1">
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4E37933BF988" box="[247,288,1587,1624]" gridcol="1" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4E37938FF988" box="[359,404,1587,1624]" gridcol="2" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964E3793E5F988" box="[475,510,1587,1624]" gridcol="3" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.35 0.01</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094E379073F988" box="[580,616,1587,1624]" gridcol="4" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.14 0.15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34E3790C0F988" box="[686,731,1587,1624]" gridcol="5" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">8.78 3.54</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4E37915EF988" box="[802,837,1587,1624]" gridcol="6" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.13 0.31</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14E3791B4F988" box="[908,943,1587,1624]" gridcol="7" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.73 0.22</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84E379638F988" box="[1013,1059,1587,1624]" gridcol="8" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">16.60 9.08</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244E37968CF988" box="[1129,1175,1587,1624]" gridcol="9" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.12 0.08</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904E37971BF988" box="[1245,1280,1587,1624]" gridcol="10" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.01 0.01</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4E3797DDF988" box="[1351,1478,1587,1624]" gridcol="11" gridrow="4" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">31.95 13.27</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54E6F97DDF940" box="[136,1478,1643,1680]" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54E6F92B4F940" box="[136,175,1643,1680]" gridcol="0" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Twig</th>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4E6F933BF940" box="[247,288,1643,1680]" gridcol="1" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4E6F938FF940" box="[359,404,1643,1680]" gridcol="2" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964E6F93E5F940" box="[475,510,1643,1680]" gridcol="3" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.51 0.16</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094E6F9073F940" box="[580,616,1643,1680]" gridcol="4" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.75 0.58</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34E6F90C0F940" box="[686,731,1643,1680]" gridcol="5" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">7.41 1.33</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4E6F915EF940" box="[802,837,1643,1680]" gridcol="6" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.18 0.37</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14E6F91B4F940" box="[908,943,1643,1680]" gridcol="7" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.41 0.07</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84E6F9638F940" box="[1013,1059,1643,1680]" gridcol="8" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.38 0.33</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244E6F968CF940" box="[1129,1175,1643,1680]" gridcol="9" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.10 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904E6F971BF940" box="[1245,1280,1643,1680]" gridcol="10" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.31 0.67</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4E6F97DDF940" box="[1351,1478,1643,1680]" gridcol="11" gridrow="5" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">14.94 3.49</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54E9C97DDF96D" box="[136,1478,1688,1725]" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" rowspan-0="1">
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4E9C933BF96D" box="[247,288,1688,1725]" gridcol="1" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4E9C938FF96D" box="[359,404,1688,1725]" gridcol="2" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964E9C93E5F96D" box="[475,510,1688,1725]" gridcol="3" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.05 0.01</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094E9C9073F96D" box="[580,616,1688,1725]" gridcol="4" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.65 0.34</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34E9C90C0F96D" box="[686,731,1688,1725]" gridcol="5" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">9.20 3.22</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4E9C915EF96D" box="[802,837,1688,1725]" gridcol="6" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.21 0.08</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14E9C91B4F96D" box="[908,943,1688,1725]" gridcol="7" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.11 0.06</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84E9C9638F96D" box="[1013,1059,1688,1725]" gridcol="8" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">4.65 1.40</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244E9C968CF96D" box="[1129,1175,1688,1725]" gridcol="9" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.13 0.05</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904E9C971BF96D" box="[1245,1280,1688,1725]" gridcol="10" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.03 0.04</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4E9C97DDF96D" box="[1351,1478,1688,1725]" gridcol="11" gridrow="6" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">16.27 3.75</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54ED497DDF925" box="[136,1478,1744,1781]" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54ED492B4F925" box="[136,175,1744,1781]" gridcol="0" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Bark</th>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4ED4933BF925" box="[247,288,1744,1781]" gridcol="1" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4ED4938FF925" box="[359,404,1744,1781]" gridcol="2" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964ED493E5F925" box="[475,510,1744,1781]" gridcol="3" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.05 0.04</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094ED49073F925" box="[580,616,1744,1781]" gridcol="4" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.01 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34ED490C0F925" box="[686,731,1744,1781]" gridcol="5" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">3.16 3.53</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4ED4915EF925" box="[802,837,1744,1781]" gridcol="6" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.07 0.03</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14ED491B4F925" box="[908,943,1744,1781]" gridcol="7" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84ED49638F925" box="[1013,1059,1744,1781]" gridcol="8" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.23 0.04</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244ED4968CF925" box="[1129,1175,1744,1781]" gridcol="9" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.12 0.06</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904ED4971BF925" box="[1245,1280,1744,1781]" gridcol="10" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4ED497DDF925" box="[1351,1478,1744,1781]" gridcol="11" gridrow="7" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">3.89 4.13</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54EFA97DDF8F3" box="[136,1478,1790,1827]" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" rowspan-0="1">
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4EFA933BF8F3" box="[247,288,1790,1827]" gridcol="1" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4EFA938FF8F3" box="[359,404,1790,1827]" gridcol="2" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964EFA93E5F8F3" box="[475,510,1790,1827]" gridcol="3" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094EFA9073F8F3" box="[580,616,1790,1827]" gridcol="4" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.01 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34EFA90C0F8F3" box="[686,731,1790,1827]" gridcol="5" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">5.37 0.79</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4EFA915EF8F3" box="[802,837,1790,1827]" gridcol="6" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.07 0.03</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14EFA91B4F8F3" box="[908,943,1790,1827]" gridcol="7" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84EFA9638F8F3" box="[1013,1059,1790,1827]" gridcol="8" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.83 0.57</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244EFA968CF8F3" box="[1129,1175,1790,1827]" gridcol="9" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.05 0.05</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904EFA971BF8F3" box="[1245,1280,1790,1827]" gridcol="10" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4EFA97DDF8F3" box="[1351,1478,1790,1827]" gridcol="11" gridrow="8" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">6.42 1.31</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54F3197DDF88A" box="[136,1478,1845,1882]" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
<th id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8C54F3192B4F88A" box="[136,175,1845,1882]" gridcol="0" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Root</th>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4F31933BF88A" box="[247,288,1845,1882]" gridcol="1" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m19</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4F31938FF88A" box="[359,404,1845,1882]" gridcol="2" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964F3193E5F88A" box="[475,510,1845,1882]" gridcol="3" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094F319073F88A" box="[580,616,1845,1882]" gridcol="4" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.04 0.03</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34F3190C0F88A" box="[686,731,1845,1882]" gridcol="5" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.35 0.38</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4F31915EF88A" box="[802,837,1845,1882]" gridcol="6" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.02 0.02</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14F3191B4F88A" box="[908,943,1845,1882]" gridcol="7" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.05 0.04</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84F319638F88A" box="[1013,1059,1845,1882]" gridcol="8" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.18 0.18</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244F31968CF88A" box="[1129,1175,1845,1882]" gridcol="9" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.11 0.10</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904F31971BF88A" box="[1245,1280,1845,1882]" gridcol="10" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.00 0.00</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4F3197DDF88A" box="[1351,1478,1845,1882]" gridcol="11" gridrow="9" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.00 0.53</td>
</tr>
<tr id="351134D8FFA3209FA8C54F6797DDF858" box="[136,1478,1891,1928]" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" rowspan-0="1">
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA8BA4F67933BF858" box="[247,288,1891,1928]" gridcol="1" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">m15</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA92A4F67938FF858" box="[359,404,1891,1928]" gridcol="2" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Mean sd</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FA9964F6793E5F858" box="[475,510,1891,1928]" gridcol="3" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.03 0.03</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAA094F679073F858" box="[580,616,1891,1928]" gridcol="4" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.06 0.11</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAAE34F6790C0F858" box="[686,731,1891,1928]" gridcol="5" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.11 0.20</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAB6F4F67915EF858" box="[802,837,1891,1928]" gridcol="6" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.15 0.24</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABC14F6791B4F858" box="[908,943,1891,1928]" gridcol="7" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.08 0.13</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FABB84F679638F858" box="[1013,1059,1891,1928]" gridcol="8" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.30 0.27</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC244F67968CF858" box="[1129,1175,1891,1928]" gridcol="9" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.23 0.23</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAC904F67971BF858" box="[1245,1280,1891,1928]" gridcol="10" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">0.13 0.22</td>
<td id="76C05DA4FFA3209FAD0A4F6797DDF858" box="[1351,1478,1891,1928]" gridcol="11" gridrow="10" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">1.36 1.84</td>
</tr>
</table>
</paragraph>
<tableNote id="76C73714FFA3DF64A83C4FA59329F80D" pageId="4" pageNumber="13" targetBox="[136,1478,1403,1928]" targetPageId="4">
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A83C4FA592C1F816" blockId="4.[113,1500,1952,2013]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">
A = ammodendrine, AN = anagyrine, C = cytisine, DHL = dehydrolupanine, L = lupanine, M = matrine, NMC =
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA3DF64ABA14FA491E3F87F" box="[1004,1016,1952,1967]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">N</emphasis>
-methyl cytisine, S = sparteine; # including tentative and unidentified.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A8CC4FCE9293F804" blockId="4.[113,1500,1952,2013]" box="[129,136,1994,2004]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">*</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA3DF64A8DC4FCB9329F80D" blockId="4.[113,1500,1952,2013]" box="[145,306,1999,2013]" pageId="4" pageNumber="13">Relative to cytisine.</paragraph>
</tableNote>
<caption id="DF5E6612FFA2DF65A98A4B82964FFC45" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10488912" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10488912" box="[455,1108,901,917]" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10488912/files/figure.png" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" startId="5.[455,481,902,916]" targetBox="[300,1261,182,872]" targetPageId="5" targetType="figure">
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA2DF65A98A4B82964FFC45" blockId="5.[455,1108,901,917]" box="[455,1108,901,917]" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA2DF65A98A4B8293E2FC44" bold="true" box="[455,505,902,916]" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">Fig. 2.</emphasis>
Canonical discriminant Analysis of alkaloids in
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA2DF65ABCF4B81963BFC44" box="[898,1056,901,917]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Sophora" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="5" pageNumber="13" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="subSpecies" species="microphylla" subSpecies="plant">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA2DF65ABCF4B8191EBFC45" box="[898,1008,901,917]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">S. microphylla</emphasis>
plant
</taxonomicName>
parts.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph id="8B9E369AFFA2DF65A83B4CCE9023FA24" blockId="5.[87,758,975,1524]" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">
Since many of the nicotinic alkaloids are known to be toxic (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA2DF65AAF74CCE92DAFB29" author="Schep, L. J. &amp; Slaughter, R. J. &amp; Beasley, D. M. G." journalOrPublisher="Clin. Toxicol." pageId="5" pageNumber="14" pagination="771 - 781" part="47" refId="ref9032" refString="Schep, L. J., Slaughter, R. J., Beasley, D. M. G., 2009. Nicotinic plant poisoning. Clin. Toxicol. 47, 771 - 781." title="Nicotinic plant poisoning" type="journal article" year="2009">Schep et al., 2009</bibRefCitation>
), the amount of alkaloids in
<taxonomicName id="4C214D19FFA2DF65A99B4CE1906BFB29" box="[470,624,1253,1273]" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">
<emphasis id="B955EA88FFA2DF65A99B4CE1903FFB29" box="[470,548,1253,1273]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">Sophora</emphasis>
species
</taxonomicName>
has potential health concerns in term of intentional or accidental ingestion. Cytisine, for example, has a lethal (LD
<subScript id="17A534DFFFA2DF65A99E4D2393FEFAE3" attach="left" box="[467,485,1319,1331]" fontSize="5" pageId="5" pageNumber="14">50</subScript>
) oral dose of
<quantity id="4CD99B7FFFA2DF65AA3D4D1A90A1FAE1" box="[624,698,1310,1329]" metricMagnitude="-4" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.01" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" unit="mg" value="101.0">101 mg</quantity>
/kg in rats (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA2DF65A8C74D3E9390FA9D" author="Barlow and McLeod" box="[138,395,1338,1357]" firstAuthor="Barlow" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" pagination="161 - 174" refId="ref7572" refString="Barlow, R. B., McLeod, L. J., 1969. Some studies on cytisine and its methylated derivatives. Br. J. Pharmacol. 35, 161 - 174." type="journal article" year="1969">Barlow and McLeod, 1969</bibRefCitation>
), and reports of fatal human poisoning (see (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA2DF65A8FF4D5193A5FAB9" author="Musshoff and Madea" box="[178,446,1365,1385]" firstAuthor="Musshoff" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" pagination="4" refId="ref8791" refString="Musshoff, F., Madea, B., 2009. Fatal cytisine intoxication and analysis of biological samples with LC-MS / MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 186, E 1 - E 4." type="journal article" year="2009">Musshoff and Madea, 2009</bibRefCitation>
) and references therein) corresponding to about
<quantity id="4CD99B7FFFA2DF65A9434D759357FA55" box="[270,332,1393,1413]" metricMagnitude="-5" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="5.0" pageId="5" pageNumber="14" unit="mg" value="50.0">50 mg</quantity>
of cytisine, but the lethal dose in humans is unknown. However, since the seeds have a very hard outer casing, it has been recognised that they would need to be crushed or soaked to poison, otherwise they would pass though the gastrointestinal tract without causing toxicity (
<bibRefCitation id="EFB04B6BFFA2DF65A9144DE59031FA24" author="Slaughter, R. J. &amp; Beasley, D. M. G. &amp; Lambie, B. S. &amp; Wilkins, G. T. &amp; Schep, L. J." box="[345,554,1505,1524]" journalOrPublisher="N. Z. Med. J." pageId="5" pageNumber="14" pagination="87 - 118" part="125" refId="ref9071" refString="Slaughter, R. J., Beasley, D. M. G., Lambie, B. S., Wilkins, G. T., Schep, L. J., 2012. Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those that are most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre. N. Z. Med. J. 125, 87 - 118." title="Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those that are most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre" type="journal article" year="2012">Slaughter et al., 2012</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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