300 lines
37 KiB
XML
300 lines
37 KiB
XML
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<mods:titleInfo id="EB7546C8DACBA843ACBB9B373DEC78C1">
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<mods:title id="E5A2B37695721C0D04CAC7E868251E77">Bovidae</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="2CA475DFEB0EFFF1F47A1D75944A0099">Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="D7FC5ED5CAEC69BF005D1D39ED31CAF2">Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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<mods:dateIssued id="58B12AC2E401E8F54443EAEB50FDC9AD">2011</mods:dateIssued>
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<mods:titleInfo id="B0507984491F359CCD8DA075475B45E1">
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<mods:title id="5A3B0F4288CB4464046BEFBF70FCB136">Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals</mods:title>
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<treatment id="03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6636932" ID-GBIF-Taxon="195659289" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6636932" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED" lastPageId="105" lastPageNumber="676" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF98064FF7C1FA44F7EC" box="[1369,1449,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="multiple">
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF98064FF7C1FA44F7EC" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1369,1449,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<heading id="D0AB01699923FF98064FF7C1FA44F7EC" box="[1369,1449,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<figureCitation id="1367AA809923FF98064FF7C1FA44F7EC" box="[1369,1449,2115,2157]" captionStart="Plate 45: Bovidae" captionStartId="104.[93,123,3393,3414]" captionTargetBox="[12,2758,13,3635]" captionTargetPageId="103" captionText="178. Wild Goat (Capra aegagrus), 179. Markhor (Capra falconeri), 180. Iberian Ibex (Capra pyrenaica), 181. Nubian Ibex (Capra nubiana), 182. Walia Ibex (Capra wale), 183. Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex), 184. Siberian Ibex (Capra sibirica), 185. Kuban Tur (Capra caucasica), 186. Daghestan Tur (Capra cylindricornis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6512955" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6512955/files/figure.png" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">179.</figureCitation>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF9806ACF7C1F99FF7EC" box="[1466,1650,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF9806ACF7C1F99FF7EC" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1466,1650,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<heading id="D0AB01699923FF9806ACF7C1F99FF7EC" box="[1466,1650,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF9806ACF7C1F99FF7EC" box="[1466,1650,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Markhor</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF9805BEF7C1F82BF7EC" box="[1704,1990,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF9805BEF7C1F82BF7EC" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1704,1990,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<heading id="D0AB01699923FF9805BEF7C1F82BF7EC" box="[1704,1990,2115,2157]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF9805BEF7C1F82BF7EC" ID-CoL="QS67" authority="(Wagner, 1839)" authorityName="Wagner" authorityYear="1839" box="[1704,1990,2115,2157]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="falconeri">
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF9805BEF7C1F82BF7EC" box="[1704,1990,2115,2157]" italics="true" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Capra falconeri</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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||
</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF980640F7FDF987F763" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="vernacular_names">
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||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980640F7FDF86FF715" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1366,1922,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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||
<heading id="D0AB01699923FF980640F7FDF86FF715" box="[1366,1922,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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||
<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF980640F7FDFA4FF715" bold="true" box="[1366,1442,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">French:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF9806BAF7FDFA13F715" box="[1452,1534,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Markhor</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF980504F7FDF983F715" bold="true" box="[1554,1646,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">German:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF980561F7FDF924F715" box="[1655,1737,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Markhor</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF9805C8F7FDF8D4F715" bold="true" box="[1758,1849,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Spanish:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF980455F7FDF86FF715" box="[1859,1922,2175,2196]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Marjor</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980643F725F620F73D" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1365,2509,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<heading id="D0AB01699923FF980643F725F620F73D" box="[1365,2509,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF980643F725F9A6F73D" bold="true" box="[1365,1611,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Other common names:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF980542F725F90EF73D" box="[1620,1763,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Astor Markhor</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF9805E7F725F82AF73D" box="[1777,1991,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Flare-horned Markhor</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF9804C0F725F788F73D" box="[2006,2149,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<collectingRegion id="499878E79923FF9804C0F725F7E7F73D" box="[2006,2058,2215,2236]" country="Afghanistan" name="Kabul" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Kabul</collectingRegion>
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Markhor
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</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF980B65F725F6CAF73D" box="[2163,2343,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Pir Panjal Markhor</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF980A22F725F620F73D" box="[2356,2509,2215,2236]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Straight-horned</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980640F74FF987F763" blockId="104.[1365,2509,2115,2274]" box="[1366,1642,2253,2274]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<heading id="D0AB01699923FF980640F74FF987F763" box="[1366,1642,2253,2274]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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Markhor,
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<vernacularName id="055FC62B9923FF9806A3F74FF987F763" box="[1461,1642,2253,2274]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Sulaiman Markhor</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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||
</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF9804AAF697F7AEF6D8" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF9804AAF697F7AEF6D8" blockId="104.[1977,2567,2325,2746]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF9804AAF697F7BBF6B3" bold="true" box="[1980,2134,2325,2354]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
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Aegoceros
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980BF4F697F7D3F6D8" ID-CoL="QS67" authority="Wagner, 1839" authorityName="Wagner" authorityYear="1839" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="falconeri" subGenus="Capra">(Capra)falconeri Wagner, 1839</taxonomicName>
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,
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF980B59F6BEF72AF6D8" box="[2127,2247,2364,2393]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="reference_group">
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||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980B59F6BEF72AF6D8" blockId="104.[1977,2567,2325,2746]" box="[2127,2247,2364,2393]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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||
<materialsCitation id="3B34BC589923FF980B59F6BEF72AF6D8" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785198333" box="[2127,2247,2364,2393]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Kashmir.</materialsCitation>
|
||
</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF9804AAF6E1F902F4FE" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="discussion">
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF9804AAF6E1F902F4FE" blockId="104.[1977,2567,2325,2746]" lastBlockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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The Markhor is the most anatomically dissimilar species of
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980BFBF609F6D7F629" box="[2285,2362,2443,2472]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
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. Phylogenetic data based on mitochondrial genome fragments reveal that the genetic distance separating Markhor from other
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980AAFF583F5EBF59F" box="[2489,2566,2561,2590]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
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species is small. Phylogenetic analysis of Y-chromosome data reveals that the Wild Goat (
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980B0CF5F0F75AF512" box="[2074,2231,2674,2707]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="aegagrus">C. aegagrus</taxonomicName>
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) and the Markhor belong to one clade; the mtDNA data reveal support for the monophyly of all
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF98046FF542F828F560" box="[1913,1989,2752,2785]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
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species except for the Siberian Ibex (
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980AF1F542FA5BF488" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sibirica">C. sibirica</taxonomicName>
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). The relationship of the Markhor to other
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<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980B30F56AF79FF488" box="[2086,2162,2792,2825]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
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species remains unresolved. The so called “Chiltan Goat” population (chialtanensis), sometimes recognized as a separate subspecies, is most probably a population of Markhor x Wild Goat hybrids. Three subspecies recognized.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF980642F40BF793F3C2" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="distribution">
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||
<caption id="DF23E68D9923FF980642F40BF793F3C2" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6512712" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6512712" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6512712/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" targetBox="[1363,1956,2327,2743]" targetPageId="104">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980642F40BF90EF427" blockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" box="[1364,1763,2953,2982]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF980642F40BF90EF427" bold="true" box="[1364,1763,2953,2982]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980641F42EF6C7F44C" blockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" box="[1367,2346,2988,3021]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980641F42EF6C7F44C" authority="Wagner, 1839" authorityName="Wagner" authorityYear="1839" box="[1367,2346,2988,3021]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="falconeri" subSpecies="falconeri">C.f.falconeriWagner,1839—NEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNIndia.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980641F45AFA08F39D" blockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980641F45AFA08F39D" authority="Zalkin, 1945" authorityName="Zalkin" authorityYear="1945" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="falconeri" subSpecies="heptneri">C.f.heptneriZalkin,1945—STajikistan,SETurkmenistan,SWUzbekistan,NAfghanistan.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF980641F3A0F793F3C2" blockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" box="[1367,2174,3106,3139]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980641F3A0F922F3C2" authority="Hutton, 1842" authorityName="Hutton" authorityYear="1842" box="[1367,1743,3106,3139]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="falconeri" subSpecies="megaceros">C. f. megaceros Hutton, 1842</taxonomicName>
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— WC
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<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959923FF980439F3A0F849F3C2" box="[1839,1956,3106,3139]" name="Pakistan" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
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||
, E
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<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959923FF9804D9F3A0F796F3C2" box="[1999,2171,3106,3139]" name="Afghanistan" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Afghanistan</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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</caption>
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</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9923FF990642F3CBFDB9FC00" lastPageId="105" lastPageNumber="676" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" type="description">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF990642F3CBFDB9FC00" blockId="104.[1363,2564,2752,3296]" lastBlockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" lastPageId="105" lastPageNumber="676" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
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<emphasis id="B9286A179923FF980642F3CBF9BFF3EB" bold="true" box="[1364,1618,3145,3178]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
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Head-body 155-170 cm (males), tail 10-20 cm, shoulder height 65-104 cm; weight 80-108 kg (males) and 32-50 kg (females). Horn length 80-165 cm (males), rarely longer than
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<quantity id="4CA41BE09923FF980445F31AF84AF338" box="[1875,1959,3224,3257]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.5" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" unit="cm" value="35.0">35 cm</quantity>
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in females, horn basal circumference 15-34 cm (males). Females weigh about 50% less than males. There is great variation in the tightness of the horn twist and horn flare; Markhors have the greatest variation in horn configuration of all wild
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990169FEBAFD23FED8" box="[639,718,312,345]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Horns either spiral upward and then flare, with the tips highly divergent, typical of subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF99004CFEE2FC20FE00" box="[858,973,352,385]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="falconeri">falconeri</taxonomicName>
|
||
and hepineri, or grow relatively straight in a tight spiral, typical of subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990067FE05FC01FE29" box="[881,1004,391,424]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Kobus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="megaceros">megaceros</taxonomicName>
|
||
, but there can be variation within a population. General body color is reddish-gray, but with more yellow-buff tones in the summer coat of both genders and more gray in the winter coat. In males, a darker crest of longer hair extends from the withers down the spine. Long, white or gray shaggy hair develops on older males on the front of the neck, brisket, shoulder, upper part of the forelegs, and upper front of hindlegs. The long hair on the sides of the cheeks is continuous with the long, dark hair that forms the beard. Females also develop a beard. Neck and chest ruff in subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990766FD19FB06FD3D" box="[1136,1259,667,700]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Kobus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="megaceros">megaceros</taxonomicName>
|
||
are not as well developed. The belly and legs are creamy, except for the front of the shanks, which are darker. A callosity surrounded by white hairs on the knee breaks the dark pattern on the front legs. The rump patch is small and whitish. The dark tail is short and not as bushy as that of ibexes. Males rarely live more than twelve years. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<caption id="DF23E68D9923FF98034BF2C3FDCCF2FD" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6512955" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6512955" captionStart="45" captionText="178. Wild Goat (Capra aegagrus), 179. Markhor (Capra falconeri), 180. Iberian Ibex (Capra pyrenaica), 181. Nubian Ibex (Capra nubiana), 182. Walia Ibex (Capra wale), 183. Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex), 184. Siberian Ibex (Capra sibirica), 185. Kuban Tur (Capra caucasica), 186. Daghestan Tur (Capra cylindricornis)" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6512955/files/figure.png" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" startId="104.[93,123,3393,3414]" targetBox="[12,2758,13,3635]" targetPageId="103">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059923FF98034BF2C3FDCCF2FD" blockId="104.[91,2492,3389,3453]" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">
|
||
On following pages: 180. Iberian
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF9802DCF2C3FE18F2D7" box="[458,501,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980110F2C3FD59F2D7" authorityName="Schinz" authorityYear="1838" box="[518,692,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="pyrenaica">Capra pyrenaica</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 181. Nubian
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980040F2C3FC6CF2D7" box="[854,897,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980087F2C3FBC1F2D7" box="[913,1068,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="nubiana">Capra nubiana</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 182. Walia
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF9807ABF2C3FB04F2D7" box="[1213,1257,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF9807EFF2C3FA95F2D7" box="[1273,1400,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="walie">Capra walie</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 183. Alpine
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980507F2C3F9D1F2D7" box="[1553,1596,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF98055BF2C3F92DF2D7" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[1613,1728,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Capra ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 184. Siberian
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF98047AF2C3F87AF2D7" box="[1900,1943,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="ibex">Ibex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF9804BEF2C3F7D7F2D7" box="[1960,2106,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sibirica">Capra sibirica</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 185. Kuban Tur (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980A17F2C3F65CF2D7" box="[2305,2481,3393,3414]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="caucasica">Capra caucasica</taxonomicName>
|
||
); 186.
|
||
<collectingRegion id="499878E79923FF980383F2E5FEE5F2FD" box="[149,264,3431,3452]" country="Russia" name="Dagestan" pageId="104" pageNumber="675">Daghestan</collectingRegion>
|
||
Tur (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869923FF980257F2E5FDFBF2FD" box="[321,534,3431,3452]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="104" pageNumber="675" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="cylindricornis">Capra cylindricornis</taxonomicName>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903D8FC04FDAFFA01" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903D8FC04FDAFFA01" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903D8FC04FED0FC26" bold="true" box="[206,317,902,935]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Habitat.</emphasis>
|
||
Markhors occur at 600-3600 m above sea level. In the Himalayas, Markhors occur at higher elevations (1700-3600 m) than do southern populations. They are found in open, forested areas of oaks and conifers or in areas with tall shrubs and scattered trees interspersed with smaller shrubs in northern, higher elevations. Markhors can inhabit areas with a high percentage of canopy cover. In west-central
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990615FBAAFA94FBC4" box="[1283,1401,1064,1093]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, they inhabit arid, almost treeless areas, largely denuded by human overexploitation, with temperatures of up to 45°C and average annual precipitation of 200-250 mm; prolonged droughts can occur. Females use open, steeper resting sites than males. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF9903E0FB43FE51FB63" box="[246,444,1217,1250]" name="Turkmenistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Turkmenistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, adult males occurred at elevations higher than
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF99077EFB43FB21FB63" box="[1128,1228,1217,1250]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.8" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="m" value="1800.0">1800 m</quantity>
|
||
and females generally occurred below
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF99012BFB6AFD4DFA88" box="[573,672,1256,1289]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.8" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="m" value="1800.0">1800 m</quantity>
|
||
in large rugged canyons. Markhors have the reputation of being the most agile climbers of all wild
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990071FA8DFC5EFAB1" box="[871,947,1295,1328]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Capra</taxonomicName>
|
||
in Asia, able to occupy the steepest and rockiest habitats.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF99013AFAB5FD92FAD9" box="[556,639,1335,1368]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Boselaphus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="major">Major</taxonomicName>
|
||
wild predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903D8FA04FDFDF8FE" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="food_feeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903D8FA04FDFDF8FE" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903D8FA04FE3AFA26" bold="true" box="[206,471,1414,1447]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Food and Feeding</emphasis>
|
||
: Markhors eat equal proportions of graminoids and forbs (26% each) and 48% browse. They prefer graminoids and forbs in summer and browse in winter. In northern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF9902F5FA56FDB4FA74" box="[483,601,1492,1525]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, oak leaves constituted 88% of their winter food; they also actively seek oak acorns. They actively climb trees to browse on leaves and twigs during winter. On one occasion, 27 out of a group of 40 were feeding in trees. Females in northern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF99024FF9C8FE21F9EA" box="[345,460,1610,1643]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
spent 37% oftheir total feeding time foraging in trees, usually at a height of 1-5 m, but up to
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF990155F9F3FD94F913" box="[579,633,1649,1682]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="9.0" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="m" value="9.0">9 m</quantity>
|
||
. They are agile climbers, capable ofjumping from limb to limb. Males older than three years of age do not climb trees because of their weight and the hindrance of their horns. They feed on leaves on the ground, especially those that fall when others are foraging in trees. In some regions, trees are not a major habitat component, and they spend considerable time feeding on steep slopes and cliffs. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF9903D9F8B4FEBBF8D6" box="[207,342,1846,1879]" name="Tajikistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Tajikistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, adult females consumed 7-11 kg and kids 2.4-4 kg of forage per day based on fresh forage weight.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903D9F807FC6CF7C5" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="breeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903D9F807FC6CF7C5" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903D9F807FEB8F827" bold="true" box="[207,341,1925,1958]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Breeding.</emphasis>
|
||
In northern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990108F807FD79F827" box="[542,660,1925,1958]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, Markhors mate in mid-December to early January. In southern subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990133F82EFD73F84C" box="[549,670,1964,1997]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Kobus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="megaceros">megaceros</taxonomicName>
|
||
populations, mating occurs in October-November. Females first give birth at 2-3 years old. Older males actively court individual females and do most of the mating. After a gestation period of 165-175 days, females give birth to one or two neonates in late April to earlyJune.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903DBF7CBFBF4F761" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="activity">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903DBF7CBFBF4F761" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903DBF7CBFE57F7EB" bold="true" box="[205,442,2121,2154]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
|
||
Moving and feeding are most common in the morning and late afternoon. Resting is common at noon and early afternoon. Markhors prefer southern slopes in summer and winter. During winter, at midday, after valley bottoms warm, Markhors descend and forage on the slopes until after dark.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903D9F769FCE7F510" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903D9F769FCE7F510" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903D9F769FC7AF689" bold="true" box="[207,919,2283,2312]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
|
||
Markhors move around considerably during the course of a year. Distance between winter and summer range can be 10-15 km; total annual range is
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF990188F6BFFD03F6D7" box="[670,750,2365,2390]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="8.0" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="km" value="80.0">80 km</quantity>
|
||
®. Detailed home range studies have not been conducted. In northern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990138F6DFFD49F6FF" box="[558,676,2397,2430]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, in a population of about 100 Markhors, 31% were adult females, 8:-5% yearling females, 40% young, and 20-5% males. Of the males, 7-9% were yearlings, 2-4% were 2-5 years old, 4-2% were 3-5 years old, and 6-1% 4-5 years old or older. The sex ratio was about 50 males:100 females. Female herds consisted of 2-18 individuals, with a mean of nine. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990085F678FBF7F59A" box="[915,1050,2554,2587]" name="Tajikistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Tajikistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, in a population of about 50 Markhors, 26% were adult females, 40% were kids, 24% were yearlings, and 10% were adult males. In a strictly controlled hunted population in west-central
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990613F5CAFA97F5E8" box="[1285,1402,2632,2665]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, 14% of males were six or more years old.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9903C7F515F7C6FE01" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="conservation">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9903C7F515F7C6FE01" blockId="105.[204,1415,273,3457]" lastBlockId="105.[1477,2679,272,621]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9903C7F515FDDCF539" bold="true" box="[209,561,2711,2744]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
|
||
CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Most populations are unmonitored and population numbers are not documented. The total number of subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990004F567FC6EF487" box="[786,899,2789,2822]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="falconeri">falconeri</taxonomicName>
|
||
probably does not exceed 8500 and the total number of subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF990186F48EFCE4F4AC" box="[656,777,2828,2861]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Kobus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="megaceros">megaceros</taxonomicName>
|
||
probably does not exceed 3500. Populations of subspecies heptneri greatly declined recently due to a disease outbreak in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF9907E2F4B6FA96F4D4" box="[1268,1403,2868,2901]" name="Tajikistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Tajikistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
; the total number throughout its range probably does not exceed 800. Populations in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF9903E0F400FE73F422" box="[246,414,2946,2979]" name="Afghanistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Afghanistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
are unprotected and particularly vulnerable: there are probably fewer than 200. The threat throughout the Markhor’s range is illegal commercial and subsistence hunting. There has been widespread extirpation; habitat degradation and fragmentation have relegated the Markhor to marginal habitats. Most populations are isolated and disjunct because of increasing agricultural development, excessive grazing of rangelands, and other human intrusions. Livestock and wildlife-coordinated grazing management and incentive-driven community-based conservation programs need to be developed and implemented. Population monitoring and enforcement of game laws are also urgently needed. Successful trophy-hunting programs for subspecies
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF99021CF366FE96F284" box="[266,379,3300,3333]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Capra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="falconeri">falconeri</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C5CCD869922FF9902D4F366FDD7F284" box="[450,570,3300,3333]" class="Mammalia" family="Bovidae" genus="Kobus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="megaceros">megaceros</taxonomicName>
|
||
have been developed in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990080F366FBE6F284" box="[918,1035,3300,3333]" name="Pakistan" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and have generated more than
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990237F289FEA1F2AD" box="[289,332,3339,3372]" name="United States of America" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">US</collectingCountry>
|
||
$ 2 million for community development. Markhors are protected by local game wardens paid by funds generated through sport-hunting programs, and populations have increased. Of the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F34BF6959922FF990176F2DBFD67F2FB" box="[608,650,3417,3450]" name="United States of America" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">US</collectingCountry>
|
||
$ 35,000 trophy fee charged per Markhor, 20% goes to the government and 80% to the local community. These populations are periodically monitored. Under the protection of local Pathan tribesmen, the Markhor population increased from
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF9905B5FEE1F915FE01" box="[1699,1784,355,384]" metricMagnitude="1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.778" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="in" value="700.0">700 in</quantity>
|
||
<quantity id="4CA41BE09922FF990413FEE1F835FE01" box="[1797,2008,355,384]" metricMagnitude="1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="5.70738" metricValueMax="6.35" metricValueMin="5.06476" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" unit="in" value="2247.0" valueMax="2500.0" valueMin="1994.0">1994 to 2500 in</quantity>
|
||
2005.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C346E58E9922FF9906D0FE0CF7CCFDED" pageId="105" pageNumber="676" type="bibRefCitation_list">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BE3B6059922FF9906D0FE0CF7CCFDED" blockId="105.[1477,2679,272,621]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9286A179922FF9906D0FE0CF98DFE26" bold="true" box="[1478,1632,398,423]" pageId="105" pageNumber="676">Bibliography.</emphasis>
|
||
Baskin & Danell (2003), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1966), Fedosenko et al (2000), Fox & Johnsingh (1997), Frisina & Tareen, (2009), Grubb (2005), Habibi (1997a, 2003), Heptner et al. (1988), Hess (1990a, 2001), Hess et al. (1997), Ishunin (1961), Johnson (1997), Kuzanskaya et al. (2007), Lux et al. (2004), Lydekker & Dollman (1924), Manceau, Després et al. (1999), Mishra et al. (2001), Pidancier et al. (2006), Ranjitsinh et al. (2005), Roberts (1997), Schaller (1977), Schaller & Khan (1975), Schaller & Mirza (1971), Sokov (1993), Valdez (2008a), Weinberg et al. (1997), Woodford et al. (2004).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |