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<document id="77DD61C1054ECD5C256F27541AD1D360" ID-CLB-Dataset="5350" ID-DOI="10.11646/zootaxa.3817.1.1" ID-GBIF-Dataset="d66f1b27-5891-4fa5-96e0-f75cb3ec2445" ID-ISSN="1175-5326" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10086256" ID-ZooBank="A3C10B34-7698-4C4D-94E5-DCF70B475603" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="felipe" IM.metadata_approvedBy="felipe" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="felipe" checkinTime="1623272878632" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="Schmidt, C. A. &amp; Shattuck, S. O." docDate="2014" docId="03775906A6042C5FFF17FB121438F841" docLanguage="en" docName="zt03817p242.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Zootaxa 3817 (1)" docStyle="DocumentStyle:5EBBA59367AD13919D70D935FA04F6A3.14:Zootaxa.2013-.monograph" docStyleId="5EBBA59367AD13919D70D935FA04F6A3" docStyleName="Zootaxa.2013-.monograph" docStyleVersion="14" docTitle="Paltothyreus Mayr" docType="treatment" docVersion="10" lastPageNumber="126" masterDocId="FF4E217EA67F2C22FF80FFE61065FFFA" masterDocTitle="The Higher Classification of the Ant Subfamily Ponerinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with a Review of Ponerine Ecology and Behavior" masterLastPageNumber="242" masterPageNumber="1" pageNumber="124" updateTime="1699920028738" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:title id="DD5816DA8DC6D5B1134FE6E95A9FD0CC">The Higher Classification of the Ant Subfamily Ponerinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with a Review of Ponerine Ecology and Behavior</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="5A7236BBA56E2057CC1D49BBE00CB8DC">Schmidt, C. A.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="BAD967E904815B61CA48924FA26FC495">Shattuck, S. O.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:date id="FB52D71EA35B1C7CF978E81341A3AEA1">2014</mods:date>
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<treatment id="03775906A6042C5FFF17FB121438F841" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5117512" ID-GBIF-Taxon="183709949" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5117512" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03775906A6042C5FFF17FB121438F841" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03775906A6042C5FFF17FB121438F841" lastPageId="125" lastPageNumber="126" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6042C59FF17FB121118FAF4" box="[151,381,1268,1294]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C59FF17FB121118FAF4" blockId="123.[151,381,1268,1327]" box="[151,381,1268,1294]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<heading id="D0295F7CA6042C59FF17FB121118FAF4" bold="true" box="[151,381,1268,1294]" fontSize="11" level="2" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" reason="4">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FF17FB121118FAF4" authority="Mayr" authorityName="Mayr" box="[151,381,1268,1294]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF17FB121118FAF4" bold="true" box="[151,381,1268,1294]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF17FB121155FAF4" bold="true" box="[151,304,1268,1294]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
Mayr
</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6042C59FF17FAF01083FAD5" box="[151,230,1302,1327]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" type="description">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C59FF17FAF01083FAD5" blockId="123.[151,381,1268,1327]" box="[151,230,1302,1327]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<figureCitation id="13E5F495A6042C59FF17FAF01083FAD5" box="[151,230,1302,1327]" captionStart="FIGURE 22" captionStartId="124.[151,250,1952,1974]" captionTargetBox="[151,1436,373,1919]" captionTargetId="figure-128@124.[151,1436,373,1931]" captionTargetPageId="124" captionText="FIGURE 22. Worker caste of Paltothyreus tarsatus: lateral and dorsal view of body and full-face view of head (CASENT0172430, April Nobile and www.antweb.org); world distribution of Paltothyreus." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10120864" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10120864/files/figure.png" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Fig. 22</figureCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6042C59FF17FAB8109AF9F8" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C59FF17FAB815E5FA8E" blockId="123.[151,1408,1374,1396]" box="[151,1408,1374,1396]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<treatmentCitationGroup id="ABCECF3EA6042C59FF17FAB815E5FA8E" box="[151,1408,1374,1396]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<treatmentCitation id="0A7FCE01A6042C59FF17FAB811ADFA8E" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6295336" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6295336" LSID="urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:CFD27EDA-4DE5-4CD9-AE53-3990523EBD9E" author="Mayr, G." box="[151,456,1374,1396]" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/CD62F109D3A252EA79C98D09ADDDD547" page="714" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" year="1862">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FF17FAB811ADFA8E" authority="Mayr, 1862: 714" authorityName="Mayr" authorityPageNumber="714" authorityYear="1862" box="[151,456,1374,1396]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF17FAB8117DFA8E" box="[151,280,1374,1396]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6042C59FE9DFAB911ADFA8E" author="Mayr, G." box="[285,456,1374,1396]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" pagination="649 - 776" refId="ref155085" refString="Mayr, G. (1862) Myrmecologische Studien. Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 12, 649 - 776." type="journal article" year="1862">Mayr, 1862: 714</bibRefCitation>
</taxonomicName>
</treatmentCitation>
, 735 (as genus). Type-species:
<treatmentCitation id="0A7FCE01A6042C59FC84FAB914E6FA8E" author="Fabricius, J. C." box="[772,1155,1374,1396]" page="280" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" year="1798">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FC84FAB914E6FA8E" authority="Fabricius, 1798: 280" authorityName="Fabricius. The" authorityPageNumber="280" authorityYear="1798" box="[772,1155,1374,1396]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Formica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tarsata">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FC84FAB913CCFA8E" box="[772,937,1375,1396]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Formica tarsata</emphasis>
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6042C59FC30FAB814E6FA8E" author="Fabricius, J. C." box="[944,1155,1374,1396]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" refId="ref141671" refString="Fabricius, J. C. (1798) Supplementum entomologiae systematicae. Proft and Storch, Hafniae [= Copenhagen], 572 pp." type="book" year="1798">Fabricius, 1798: 280</bibRefCitation>
</taxonomicName>
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; by monotypy.
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FA9FFAB815E5FA8E" bold="true" box="[1311,1408,1374,1396]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Gen. rev.</emphasis>
</treatmentCitationGroup>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C59FF17FA47109AF9F8" blockId="123.[151,1437,1441,2006]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FF17FA471140FA40" box="[151,293,1441,1466]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF17FA471140FA40" box="[151,293,1441,1466]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is a monotypic genus (with five subspecies) widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is sister to
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FF17FA201175FA27" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[151,272,1478,1501]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF17FA201175FA27" box="[151,272,1478,1501]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and is notable for its huge nests, noxious alarm pheromones, chemical recruitment, and prey transfer behavior.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6042C5FFF47F9EB1360FE7D" lastPageId="125" lastPageNumber="126" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" type="diagnosis">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C59FF47F9EB111CF904" blockId="123.[151,1437,1441,2006]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF47F9EB1124F9DC" bold="true" box="[199,321,1549,1574]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Diagnosis.</emphasis>
Diagnostic morphological apomorphies of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FCB5F9EB13A6F9DC" box="[821,963,1549,1574]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FCB5F9EB13A6F9DC" box="[821,963,1549,1574]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
workers include their striate sculpturing, blunt clypeal projection, complex metapleural gland orifice (with both anterior and posterior cuticular flanges), and hypopygium armed with stout setae. This combination of characters does not occur in any other ponerine genus. Striate sculpturing and an armed hypopygium occur in several other ponerine genera, but never together, and never in combination with a blunt clypeal projection or complex metapleural gland orifice. The apomorphies of the clypeus and metapleural gland orifice are shared with
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FC85F924131BF923" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[773,894,1730,1753]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FC85F924131BF923" box="[773,894,1730,1753]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, but that genus lacks striate sculpturing and an armed hypopygium.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6042C5EFF47F8EF137DFEBA" blockId="123.[151,1437,1441,2006]" lastBlockId="124.[151,1436,151,320]" lastPageId="124" lastPageNumber="125" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FF47F8EF11A1F8D8" bold="true" box="[199,452,1801,1826]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Synoptic description.</emphasis>
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6042C59FE4CF8EF1246F8D8" box="[460,547,1801,1826]" italics="true" pageId="123" pageNumber="124">Worker.</emphasis>
Very large (TL
<quantity id="4C2645F5A6042C59FD5BF8EF1331F8DB" box="[731,852,1801,1826]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.85" metricValueMax="2.0" metricValueMin="1.7" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" unit="mm" value="18.5" valueMax="20.0" valueMin="17.0">17-20 mm</quantity>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6042C59FCE1F8EF139DF8D8" author="Arnold, G." box="[865,1016,1801,1826]" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" pagination="1 - 159" refId="ref131610" refString="Arnold, G. (1915) A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part I. Ponerinae; Dorylinae. Annals of the South African Museum, 14, 1 - 159." type="journal article" year="1915">Arnold, 1915</bibRefCitation>
) ants with the standard characters of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6042C59FF17F8CB109FF8BC" baseAuthorityName="Forel" baseAuthorityYear="1917" box="[151,250,1837,1862]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="123" pageNumber="124" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Ponerini">Ponerini</taxonomicName>
. Mandibles triangular and long, with a distinct basal groove. Clypeus with a blunt squarish anteromedial projection. Frontal lobes widely separated anteriorly by an extension of the clypeus. Eyes large, located anterior to head midline. Ocelli sometimes present in workers. Metanotal groove at most present as a faint suture. Propodeum broad dorsally. Propodeal spiracle ovoid. Metapleural gland orifice complex, with a broad cuticular flange posteriorly and a small cuticular flange anteriorly, together forming a deep transverse groove. Metatibial spur formula (1s, 1p). Tarsal claws with a single preapical tooth. Petiole surmounted by a thick scale. Subpetiolar process a deep keel. Sternite of A3 with a large keel-like anteroventral process. Tergite of A3 with blunt dorsolateral angles. Gaster with a moderate girdling constriction between pre- and post-tergites of A4. Hypopygium armed with a row of stout setae on either side of the sting. Head and body striate, with scattered to abundant pilosity and moderate pubescence. Color black.
</paragraph>
<caption id="DFA1B898A6032C5EFF17F846145CF82E" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10120864" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10120864" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10120864/files/figure.png" pageId="124" pageNumber="125" startId="124.[151,250,1952,1974]" targetBox="[151,1436,373,1919]" targetPageId="124">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6032C5EFF17F846145CF82E" blockId="124.[151,1436,1952,2005]" pageId="124" pageNumber="125">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6032C5EFF17F846114CF84F" bold="true" box="[151,297,1952,1974]" pageId="124" pageNumber="125">FIGURE 22.</emphasis>
Worker caste of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6032C5EFE7BF84612B8F84C" box="[507,733,1952,1974]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="124" pageNumber="125" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tarsatus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6032C5EFE7BF84612B8F84C" box="[507,733,1952,1974]" italics="true" pageId="124" pageNumber="125">Paltothyreus tarsatus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
: lateral and dorsal view of body and full-face view of head (CASENT0172430, April Nobile and www.antweb.org); world distribution of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6032C5EFC33F8591456F82F" box="[947,1075,1983,2005]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="124" pageNumber="125" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6032C5EFC33F8591456F82F" box="[947,1075,1983,2005]" italics="true" pageId="124" pageNumber="125">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FF7E1479FF4A" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" box="[199,1052,151,176]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FF7E1172FF55" box="[199,279,152,175]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Queen.</emphasis>
Similar to worker but larger (TL
<quantity id="4C2645F5A6022C5FFD0FFF711287FF55" box="[655,738,151,176]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.3" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" unit="mm" value="23.0">23 mm</quantity>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFD6DFF7113E6FF4A" author="Arnold, G." box="[749,899,151,176]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1 - 159" refId="ref131610" refString="Arnold, G. (1915) A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part I. Ponerinae; Dorylinae. Annals of the South African Museum, 14, 1 - 159." type="journal article" year="1915">Arnold, 1915</bibRefCitation>
) and winged.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FF5A1452FF2F" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" box="[199,1079,188,213]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FF5A116DFF2F" box="[199,264,188,213]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Male.</emphasis>
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6022C5FFE8EFF5A1153FF2F" box="[270,310,188,213]" country="South Sudan" name="Lakes" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">See</collectingRegion>
descriptions in
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFE69FF5A12E3FF2F" author="Emery, C." box="[489,646,188,213]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1 - 125" refId="ref141346" refString="Emery, C. (1911) Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Ponerinae. Genera Insectorum, 118, 1 - 125." type="journal article" year="1911">Emery (1911)</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFD12FF5A1350FF2F" author="Arnold, G." box="[658,821,188,213]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1 - 159" refId="ref131610" refString="Arnold, G. (1915) A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part I. Ponerinae; Dorylinae. Annals of the South African Museum, 14, 1 - 159." type="journal article" year="1915">Arnold (1915)</bibRefCitation>
, and
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFCF0FF5A1457FF2F" author="Wheeler, W. M." box="[880,1074,188,213]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="631 - 710" refId="ref167817" refString="Wheeler, W. M. (1922 b) Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 45, 631 - 710." type="journal article" year="1922">Wheeler (1922b)</bibRefCitation>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FF0711DEFF02" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" box="[199,443,223,248]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FF071174FF02" box="[199,273,225,248]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Larva.</emphasis>
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6022C5FFE98FF061127FF0D" box="[280,322,224,247]" country="Cameroon" name="North" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Not</collectingRegion>
described.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FEE21360FE7D" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FEE21190FEE7" bold="true" box="[199,501,260,285]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Geographic distribution.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD83FEE212F4FEE7" box="[515,657,260,285]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD83FEE212F4FEE7" box="[515,657,260,285]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is widespread and common in Sub-Saharan Africa, though it is patchily distributed (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFE08FEC11242FEBA" author="Arnold, G." box="[392,551,295,320]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1 - 159" refId="ref131610" refString="Arnold, G. (1915) A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part I. Ponerinae; Dorylinae. Annals of the South African Museum, 14, 1 - 159." type="journal article" year="1915">Arnold, 1915</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDB7FEC11297FEBA" author="Wheeler, W. M." box="[567,754,295,320]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="631 - 710" refId="ref167817" refString="Wheeler, W. M. (1922 b) Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 45, 631 - 710." type="journal article" year="1922">Wheeler, 1922b</bibRefCitation>
).
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFC8AFEC113A8FEBA" author="Wheeler, W. M." box="[778,973,295,320]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="631 - 710" refId="ref167817" refString="Wheeler, W. M. (1922 b) Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 45, 631 - 710." type="journal article" year="1922">Wheeler (1922b)</bibRefCitation>
gives its range as encompassing all of Africa south of roughly
<geoCoordinate id="EEEA8ED7A6022C5FFE2AFEAA1188FE99" box="[426,493,332,357]" degrees="15" direction="north" orientation="latitude" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" precision="55555" value="15.0">15° N</geoCoordinate>
latitude.
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDD8FEAA1290FE9F" author="Emery, C." box="[600,757,332,357]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1 - 125" refId="ref141346" refString="Emery, C. (1911) Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Ponerinae. Genera Insectorum, 118, 1 - 125." type="journal article" year="1911">Emery (1911)</bibRefCitation>
includes
<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6022C5FFCE2FEAA138CFE9F" box="[866,1001,332,357]" name="Madagascar" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Madagascar</collectingCountry>
in the range of the genus, but this has not been reported elsewhere and is presumably in error.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6022C5FFF47FE721438F841" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FE721419FCC1" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FE721185FE57" bold="true" box="[199,480,404,429]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Ecology and behavior.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFE6FFE721218FE57" box="[495,637,404,429]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFE6FFE721218FE57" box="[495,637,404,429]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, the African stink ant, is so called because its workers produce powerfully smelly sulfur-containing alarm pheromones in their mandibular glands (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFBC7FE51154DFE2A" author="Casnati, G. &amp; Ricca, A. &amp; Pavan, M." box="[1095,1320,439,464]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="57 - 58" refId="ref135138" refString="Casnati, G., Ricca, A. &amp; Pavan, M. (1967) Sulla secrezione difensive delle glandole mandibolari di Palttothyreus tarsatus (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Chimica e l'Industria (Milan), 49, 57 - 58." type="journal article" year="1967">
Casnati
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFB25FE5F14BBFE2A" box="[1189,1246,439,464]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1967
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFAB5FE51115FFE0F" author="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Fletcher, D. J. C." pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="291 - 298" refId="ref136058" refString="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Fletcher, D. J. C. (1974) Ponerine ant secretions: the mandibular gland secretion of Paltothyreus tarsatus Fabr. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 37 (2), 291 - 298." type="journal article" year="1974">Crewe &amp; Fletcher, 1974</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFEC6FE3A1258FE0F" author="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Ross, F. P." box="[326,573,476,501]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="448 - 449" refId="ref136150" refString="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Ross, F. P. (1975 a) Biosynthesis of alkyl sulfides by an ant. Nature, 254 (5499), 448 - 449." type="journal article" year="1975">Crewe &amp; Ross, 1975a</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDC8FE3A12F7FE0F" author="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Ross, F. P." box="[584,658,476,501]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="839 - 843" refId="ref136186" refString="Crewe, R. M. &amp; Ross, F. P. (1975 b) Pheromone biosynthesis - formation of sulfides by ant Paltothyreus tarsatus. Insect Biochemistry, 5 (6), 839 - 843. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1016 / 0020 - 1790 (75) 90028 - 1" type="journal article" year="1975">1975b</bibRefCitation>
).
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD25FE3A1356FE0F" box="[677,819,476,501]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD25FE3A1356FE0F" box="[677,819,476,501]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
occurs mainly in forests and forest-savannah transition zones. Colonies are relatively large, with as many as 2,500 workers (mean =
<specimenCount id="9DD82399A6022C5FFB80FE1914EAFDE2" box="[1024,1167,511,536]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" type="worker">926 workers</specimenCount>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFB1BFDE6150DFDE2" author="Braun, U. &amp; Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[1179,1384,511,536]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="308 - 311" refId="ref134227" refString="Braun, U., Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1994) The giant nests of the African stink ant Paltothyreus tarsatus (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Biotropica, 26 (3), 308 - 311. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 2388852" type="journal article" year="1994">
Braun
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFB67FDE71545FDE2" box="[1255,1312,511,536]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1994
</bibRefCitation>
) but only a single queen. Nests are constructed in the ground or in abandoned termite nests (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFBE2FDC21527FDC7" author="Kalule-Sabiti, J. M. N." box="[1122,1346,548,573]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="113 - 121" refId="ref148579" refString="Kalule-Sabiti, J. M. N. (1980) Ecological role of ants (Formicidae) in the ecosystem. African Journal of Ecology, 18 (1), 113 - 121. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2028.1980. tb 00274. x" type="journal article" year="1980">Kalule-Sabiti, 1980</bibRefCitation>
; Déjean
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF17FDAD10B5FD99" box="[151,208,586,611]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1996, 1997) and are of exceptional size, encompassing surface areas of as much as
<quantity id="4C2645F5A6022C5FFB12FDAC148BFD98" box="[1170,1262,586,611]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.2" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" unit="m" value="1200.0">1,200 m</quantity>
<superScript id="7CAB4558A6022C5FFB6EFDA11493FDAF" attach="left" box="[1262,1270,583,597]" fontSize="6" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">2</superScript>
, with multiple entrance holes and extensive tunnel systems (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFD39FD8813FEFD7D" author="Braun, U. &amp; Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[697,923,622,647]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="308 - 311" refId="ref134227" refString="Braun, U., Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1994) The giant nests of the African stink ant Paltothyreus tarsatus (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Biotropica, 26 (3), 308 - 311. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 2388852" type="journal article" year="1994">
Braun
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC8CFD96132EFD7D" box="[780,843,622,647]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1994
</bibRefCitation>
). Some colonies inhabit multiple distantlyseparated nests connected by underground tunnels, which
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFCA7FD75139BFD51" author="Braun, U. &amp; Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[807,1022,658,683]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="308 - 311" refId="ref134227" refString="Braun, U., Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1994) The giant nests of the African stink ant Paltothyreus tarsatus (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Biotropica, 26 (3), 308 - 311. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 2388852" type="journal article" year="1994">
Braun
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFCF3FD7513C9FD51" box="[883,940,658,683]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
(1994)
</bibRefCitation>
characterize as a form of polydomy. The tunnels and multiple nest entrances allow workers to access a large foraging area with minimal time spent in the open. During nest relocations, workers employ a pygidial gland-derived pheromone to recruit nestmates for tandem running (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFEDBFD181244FCED" author="Holldobler, B." box="[347,545,766,791]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="40 - 52" refId="ref146479" refString="Holldobler, B. (1984) Communication during foraging and nest-relocation in the African stink ant, Paltothyreus tarsatus Fabr. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 65 (1), 40 - 52. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1984. tb 00371. x" type="journal article" year="1984">Hölldobler, 1984</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDAFFD191360FCED" author="Braun, U. &amp; Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[559,773,766,791]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="308 - 311" refId="ref134227" refString="Braun, U., Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1994) The giant nests of the African stink ant Paltothyreus tarsatus (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Biotropica, 26 (3), 308 - 311. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 2388852" type="journal article" year="1994">
Braun
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDFDFCE612DDFCED" box="[637,696,766,791]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1994
</bibRefCitation>
). Hölldobler (1980) discovered that
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFB28FD181553FCED" box="[1192,1334,766,791]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFB28FD181553FCED" box="[1192,1334,766,791]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
foragers visually navigate through their forest environments by memorizing the canopy overhead.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FCA01408FB3D" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFF47FCA01130FCA5" box="[199,341,838,863]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FCA01130FCA5" box="[199,341,838,863]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are largely termite predators, though they do hunt or scavenge a broad range of other invertebrates, including other ants (Lévieux, 1977;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFD7BFC8C13BAFC79" author="Kalule-Sabiti, J. M. N." box="[763,991,874,899]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="113 - 121" refId="ref148579" refString="Kalule-Sabiti, J. M. N. (1980) Ecological role of ants (Formicidae) in the ecosystem. African Journal of Ecology, 18 (1), 113 - 121. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2028.1980. tb 00274. x" type="journal article" year="1980">Kalule-Sabiti, 1980</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFC71FC8C148DFC79" author="Dejean, A. &amp; Beugnon, G. &amp; Lachaud, J. P." box="[1009,1256,874,899]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="271 - 285" refId="ref137336" refString="Dejean, A., Beugnon, G. &amp; Lachaud, J. P. (1993 a) Spatial components of foraging behavior in an African ponerine ant Paltothyreus tarsatus. Journal of Insect Behavior, 6 (3), 271 - 285. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01048109" type="journal article" year="1993">
Déjean
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFBCEFC8D14E9FC79" box="[1102,1164,874,899]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1993
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFB5BFC8C148DFC79" author="Dejean, A. &amp; Lachaud, J. P. &amp; Beugnon, G." box="[1243,1256,874,899]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="43 - 53" refId="ref137987" refString="Dejean, A., Lachaud, J. P. &amp; Beugnon, G. (1993 b) Efficiency in the exploitation of patchy environments by the ponerine ant Paltothyreus tarsatus - an ecological consequence of the flexibility of prey capture behavior. Journal of Ethology, 11 (1), 43 - 53. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350005" type="journal article" year="1993">a</bibRefCitation>
</bibRefCitation>
, 1993
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFAB3FC8C15F5FC79" author="Trunzer, B. &amp; Heinze, J. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[1331,1424,874,899]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="1093 - 1105" refId="ref164842" refString="Trunzer, B., Heinze, J. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1999) Social status and reproductive success in queenless ant colonies. Behaviour, 136, 1093 - 1105. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1163 / 156853999501775" type="journal article" year="1999">b, 1999</bibRefCitation>
). Workers primarily forage singly, but will recruit nestmates to large prey or concentrated termite sources, using a trail pheromone produced by sternal glands (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFD09FC541329FC31" author="Holldobler, B." box="[649,844,946,971]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="40 - 52" refId="ref146479" refString="Holldobler, B. (1984) Communication during foraging and nest-relocation in the African stink ant, Paltothyreus tarsatus Fabr. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 65 (1), 40 - 52. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1984. tb 00371. x" type="journal article" year="1984">Hölldobler, 1984</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFCD8FC54145EFC31" author="Dejean, A. &amp; Beugnon, G. &amp; Lachaud, J. P." box="[856,1083,946,971]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="271 - 285" refId="ref137336" refString="Dejean, A., Beugnon, G. &amp; Lachaud, J. P. (1993 a) Spatial components of foraging behavior in an African ponerine ant Paltothyreus tarsatus. Journal of Insect Behavior, 6 (3), 271 - 285. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01048109" type="journal article" year="1993">
Déjean
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC2DFC551380FC31" box="[941,997,946,971]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1993a
</bibRefCitation>
). Workers often sting their prey upon capture, and when collecting termites will stack multiple individuals between the mandibles for one return trip to the nest (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFED1FC1C1225FBE9" author="Dejean, A. &amp; Lachaud, J. P. &amp; Beugnon, G." box="[337,576,1018,1043]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="43 - 53" refId="ref137987" refString="Dejean, A., Lachaud, J. P. &amp; Beugnon, G. (1993 b) Efficiency in the exploitation of patchy environments by the ponerine ant Paltothyreus tarsatus - an ecological consequence of the flexibility of prey capture behavior. Journal of Ethology, 11 (1), 43 - 53. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350005" type="journal article" year="1993">
Déjean
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFE2CFC1D1183FBE9" box="[428,486,1018,1043]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1993b
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDCEFC1C1343FBE9" author="Lopez, F. &amp; Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I." box="[590,806,1018,1043]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="337 - 342" refId="ref152355" refString="Lopez, F., Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I. (2000) Prey chain transfer behavior in the African stink ant, Pachycondyla tarsata Fabr. Insectes Sociaux, 47 (4), 337 - 342. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / pl 00001726" type="journal article" year="2000">
López
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD1EFC1D12BCFBE9" box="[670,729,1018,1043]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 2000
</bibRefCitation>
).
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFCBBFC1C13ACFBE9" box="[827,969,1018,1043]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFCBBFC1C13ACFBE9" box="[827,969,1018,1043]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
foragers often employ a unique form of group prey retrieval, termed “prey chain transfer behavior” (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFCD9FBF81450FBCD" author="Lopez, F. &amp; Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I." box="[857,1077,1054,1079]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="337 - 342" refId="ref152355" refString="Lopez, F., Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I. (2000) Prey chain transfer behavior in the African stink ant, Pachycondyla tarsata Fabr. Insectes Sociaux, 47 (4), 337 - 342. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / pl 00001726" type="journal article" year="2000">
López
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC2BFBC61382FBCD" box="[939,999,1054,1079]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 2000
</bibRefCitation>
), by which successful foragers (”finders”) returning to the nest will transfer their termite prey to other workers (”receivers”) at locations between the prey capture site and the nest. The finders then go back to capture more termites, while the receivers head to the nest, sometimes transferring the prey to yet other workers.
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFCD1FB6C1450FB59" author="Lopez, F. &amp; Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I." box="[849,1077,1162,1187]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="337 - 342" refId="ref152355" refString="Lopez, F., Agbogba, C. &amp; Ndiaye, I. (2000) Prey chain transfer behavior in the African stink ant, Pachycondyla tarsata Fabr. Insectes Sociaux, 47 (4), 337 - 342. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / pl 00001726" type="journal article" year="2000">
López
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC23FB6D13BAFB59" box="[931,991,1162,1187]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
(2000)
</bibRefCitation>
hypothesize that this behavior increases the efficiency of prey capture and also serves as a simple form of recruitment.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FB341364FAC9" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
The mating and dispersal behavior of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFDF3FB341364FB11" box="[627,769,1234,1259]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDF3FB341364FB11" box="[627,769,1234,1259]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
were studied by
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFC43FB3414F3FB11" author="Villet, M. H. &amp; Crewe, R. M. &amp; Robertson, H." box="[963,1174,1234,1259]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="413 - 417" refId="ref165931" refString="Villet, M. H., Crewe, R. M. &amp; Robertson, H. (1989) Mating behavior and dispersal in Paltothyreus tarsatus Fabr. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Journal of Insect Behavior, 2 (3), 413 - 417. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01068065" type="journal article" year="1989">
Villet
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFB88FB351424FB11" box="[1032,1089,1234,1259]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
(1989)
</bibRefCitation>
. The abdominal glands of
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFF36FB101121FAF5" box="[182,324,1270,1295]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF36FB101121FAF5" box="[182,324,1270,1295]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
males were studied by
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDCFFB1013B1FAF5" author="Holldobler, B. &amp; Engel-Siegel, H." box="[591,980,1270,1295]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="113 - 132" refId="ref146596" refString="Holldobler, B. &amp; Engel-Siegel, H. (1982) Tergal and sternal glands in male ants. Psyche (Camb.), 89 (1 - 2), 113 - 132. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1155 / 1982 / 40397" type="journal article" year="1982">Hölldobler &amp; Engel-Siegel (1982)</bibRefCitation>
. Queens apparently chemically suppress the production of eggs by workers (
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFDA5FAFC1290FAC9" author="Braun, U. &amp; Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B." box="[549,757,1306,1331]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="308 - 311" refId="ref134227" refString="Braun, U., Peeters, C. &amp; Holldobler, B. (1994) The giant nests of the African stink ant Paltothyreus tarsatus (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Biotropica, 26 (3), 308 - 311. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 2388852" type="journal article" year="1994">
Braun
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDF2FAFD12CFFAC9" box="[626,682,1306,1331]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">et al.</emphasis>
, 1994
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FAD8143EFA65" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF47FAD812B0FAAD" bold="true" box="[199,725,1342,1367]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Phylogenetic and taxonomic considerations.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD5DFAD8130EFAAD" box="[733,875,1342,1367]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD5DFAD8130EFAAD" box="[733,875,1342,1367]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was described by
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFBBFFAD914ABFAAD" author="Mayr, G." box="[1087,1230,1342,1367]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="649 - 776" refId="ref155085" refString="Mayr, G. (1862) Myrmecologische Studien. Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 12, 649 - 776." type="journal article" year="1862">Mayr (1862)</bibRefCitation>
to hold the single species
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFF74FA851207FA81" authority="Fabricius. The" authorityName="Fabricius. The" authorityYear="1798" box="[244,610,1378,1403]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Formica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tarsata">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF74FA8511CAFA80" box="[244,431,1379,1402]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Formica tarsata</emphasis>
Fabricius. The
</taxonomicName>
genus experienced relative taxonomic stability until W. L. Brown (in
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFF17FA60114FFA65" author="Bolton, B." box="[151,298,1414,1439]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" refId="ref133375" refString="Bolton, B. (1994) Identification guide to the ant genera of the world. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 222 pp." type="book" year="1994">
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6022C5FFF17FA601083FA65" box="[151,230,1414,1439]" country="United Kingdom" name="Bolton" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Bolton</collectingRegion>
, 1994
</bibRefCitation>
) synonymized it under
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFDB3FA6012B7FA65" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1900" box="[563,722,1414,1439]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDB3FA6012B7FA65" box="[563,722,1414,1439]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Pachycondyla</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
without phylogenetic justification.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47FA4D144AF9F0" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
We are reviving
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFE11FA4C127AFA39" box="[401,543,1450,1475]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFE11FA4C127AFA39" box="[401,543,1450,1475]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
to full genus status based on both morphological and molecular evidence.
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6022C5FFF17FA281138FA1D" author="Schmidt, C." box="[151,349,1486,1511]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" pagination="201 - 250" refId="ref161753" refString="Schmidt, C. (2013) Molecular phylogenetics of ponerine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). Zootaxa, 3647 (2), 201 - 250. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3647.2.1" type="journal article" year="2013">Schmidt's (2013)</bibRefCitation>
molecular phylogeny of the
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD42FA281357FA1D" box="[706,818,1486,1511]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Ponerinae">Ponerinae</taxonomicName>
places
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFC13FA281444FA1D" box="[915,1057,1486,1511]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC13FA281444FA1D" box="[915,1057,1486,1511]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
with strong support within the
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFF17FA141124F9F1" box="[151,321,1522,1547]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Odontomachus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF17FA141124F9F1" box="[151,321,1522,1547]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Odontomachus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
group as sister to
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD8DFA1512E3F9F0" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[525,646,1523,1546]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD8DFA1512E3F9F0" box="[525,646,1523,1546]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and not at all close to
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFC0AFA14144DF9F1" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1900" box="[906,1064,1522,1547]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC0AFA14144DF9F1" box="[906,1064,1522,1547]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Pachycondyla</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47F9F013AAF918" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
A sister group relationship between
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFDEBF9F0129CF9D5" box="[619,761,1558,1583]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDEBF9F0129CF9D5" box="[619,761,1558,1583]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFCB6F9FE13CAF9D5" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[822,943,1560,1583]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFCB6F9FE13CAF9D5" box="[822,943,1560,1583]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is initially a surprising and suspect result. Superficially, these taxa are remarkably different. Whereas
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFCC1F9DC13AAF9A9" box="[833,975,1594,1619]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFCC1F9DC13AAF9A9" box="[833,975,1594,1619]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is a very large epigeic African ant with triangular mandibles and large eyes,
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFDC0F98612DCF98D" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[576,697,1632,1655]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDC0F98612DCF98D" box="[576,697,1632,1655]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is a fairly small hypogeic ant restricted to Southeast Asia, with subtriangular mandibles and extremely reduced eyes.
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFC88F96413F3F961" box="[776,918,1666,1691]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paltothyreus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC88F96413F3F961" box="[776,918,1666,1691]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Paltothyreus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
would seem to most closely resemble other large African ponerines like
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD83F94E12F7F945" box="[515,658,1704,1727]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Megaponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD83F94E12F7F945" box="[515,658,1704,1727]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Megaponera</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFD2BF9401305F945" box="[683,864,1702,1727]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Ophthalmopone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFD2BF9401305F945" box="[683,864,1702,1727]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Ophthalmopone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
or
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFC1AF94E14F2F945" box="[922,1175,1704,1727]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFC1AF94E146CF945" box="[922,1033,1704,1727]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Hagensia" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Hagensia</taxonomicName>
.
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFB9EF94E14F2F945" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[1054,1175,1704,1727]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Buniapone</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
, on the other hand, superficially bears a closer resemblance to
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFDF9F92D137AF918" box="[633,799,1739,1762]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Centromyrmex" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFDF9F92D137AF918" box="[633,799,1739,1762]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Centromyrmex</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
or
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFCC4F92D13ADF918" authorityName=", Emery" authorityYear="1893" box="[836,968,1739,1762]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Cryptopone" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFCC4F92D13ADF918" box="[836,968,1739,1762]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Cryptopone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6022C5FFF47F9081438F841" blockId="125.[151,1437,151,1979]" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">
A closer examination of the morphological structures of these taxa strongly supports a close relationship, however, as they share several apomorphies: a blunt squarish anteromedial clypeal projection, a nearly or completely obsolete metanotal suture, ovoid propodeal spiracles, a complex metapleural gland orifice with both posterior and anterior cuticular flanges, and a squamiform petiole with a large keel-like ventral process. The unusual metapleural gland orifice in particular is a strong synapomorphy for the two genera.
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6022C5FFB4AF8981497F86D" box="[1226,1266,1918,1943]" country="South Sudan" name="Lakes" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">See</collectingRegion>
the discussion under
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6022C5FFF5DF8451132F840" authorityName="Schmidt &amp; Shattuck" authorityYear="2014" box="[221,343,1955,1978]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Buniapone" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="125" pageNumber="126" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6022C5FFF5DF8451132F840" box="[221,343,1955,1978]" italics="true" pageId="125" pageNumber="126">Buniapone</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
for more on the evolutionary implications of their close relationship.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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