1166 lines
159 KiB
XML
1166 lines
159 KiB
XML
<document id="A9A936467723DAB1A7882F9AC19C6A72" ID-CLB-Dataset="299556" ID-DOI="10.1017/wsc.2021.62" ID-GBIF-Dataset="97314b8e-153e-4947-b4e6-7481d665cf73" ID-ISSN="1550-2759" ID-Zenodo-Dep="12534128" IM.bibliography_approvedBy="felipe" IM.illustrations_approvedBy="juliana" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="juliana" IM.metadata_approvedBy="felipe" IM.tables_approvedBy="juliana" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="juliana" IM.treatments_approvedBy="juliana" checkinTime="1719333597191" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="Drazan, Dallas, Smith, Alan G., Anderson, Neil O., Becker, Roger & Clark, Matthew" docDate="2021" docId="0399F47A03082C4B5536B534FA40E2ED" docLanguage="en" docName="WeedSci.69.6.617-623.pdf" docOrigin="Weed Science (Cambridge, England) 69 (6)" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2021.62" docStyle="DocumentStyle:20ADD785541A3D843141F7EB39AF2D44.1:WeedSci.2018-.journal_article.open" docStyleId="20ADD785541A3D843141F7EB39AF2D44" docStyleName="WeedSci.2018-.journal_article.open" docStyleVersion="1" docTitle="Fallopia" docType="treatment" docVersion="3" lastPageNumber="621" masterDocId="FFA08C0203092C4F555AB617FF88E745" masterDocTitle="History of knotweed (FOllopiO spp.) invasiveness" masterLastPageNumber="623" masterPageNumber="617" pageNumber="618" updateTime="1720129170589" updateUser="ExternalLinkService" zenodo-license-document="CC-BY-4.0">
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<mods:titleInfo id="3C6752F60D657451EE92F0BA69A21C56">
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<mods:title id="F5494A312AF4F3473024806C4E97B4CA">History of knotweed (FOllopiO spp.) invasiveness</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="4D1D5A54DA4A9BDBC448493625077346">Drazan, Dallas</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="B90987EF4B1B95AF6780CA68518F58A9">Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA;</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="DFE4719F5E1471CD21E8C7DF0FFFA9E8">Smith, Alan G.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="BF753988A3D1AA05E8124C0797683990">Professor, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA;</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="D921E31608BED3C790245668A5D03F22">Anderson, Neil O.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="6C0CBE7FAC7A0EC292437918A49F4B6F">Professor, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA;</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="6649DAC4FAF16F3FAFD1A18635A514D8">Becker, Roger</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="104F030718AC1F4BC11CAD737DBE3A6E">Professor and Extension Agronomist, Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:namePart id="8A8436C75A4DBCB479D1492960DA2E01">Clark, Matthew</mods:namePart>
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<mods:affiliation id="829C555288E812B1964A887564A14A44">Assistant Professor, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:title id="6ABFA8934A3E73FD392D58F61DE92CBF">Weed Science</mods:title>
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<mods:date id="BF6756A9730F505F7AB98E7C40EB63F2">2021</mods:date>
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<mods:title id="30A47784AEA434A7825A581F31A690F9">Cambridge, England</mods:title>
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<mods:number id="D9F697F7F066F7D1309A98D529BD4E09">2021-09-13</mods:number>
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<mods:url id="EFB6114463A9ED2B313ACBD1216C1683">http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2021.62</mods:url>
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<mods:identifier id="D0F88FFFF8184AE933BF10776E6ADF32" type="CLB-Dataset">299556</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier id="917780325F13C621EA9884EAB7A6C972" type="DOI">10.1017/wsc.2021.62</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier id="25F64F588A562DC56C27B97FBEBC18F9" type="GBIF-Dataset">97314b8e-153e-4947-b4e6-7481d665cf73</mods:identifier>
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<treatment id="0399F47A03082C4B5536B534FA40E2ED" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12659226" ID-GBIF-Taxon="234444065" ID-Zenodo-Dep="12659226" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:0399F47A03082C4B5536B534FA40E2ED" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/0399F47A03082C4B5536B534FA40E2ED" lastPageId="4" lastPageNumber="621" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
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<subSubSection id="C32A16E703082C4E5536B534FE89E47C" box="[108,257,803,825]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5536B534FE89E47C" blockId="1.[108,257,803,825]" box="[108,257,803,825]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
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<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5536B534FE89E47C" ID-CoL="4JBP" authority="Adans." box="[108,257,803,825]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
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<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B534FE89E47C" bold="true" box="[108,257,803,825]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Classification</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C32A16E703082C4E5536B558FDDBE279" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" type="description">
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<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5536B558FDDBE279" blockId="1.[108,773,846,1340]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
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||
The taxonomic classification of knotweed has changed numerous times since its initial classification.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5493B57CFDFCE4C6" box="[457,628,875,899]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5493B57CFDFCE4C6" box="[457,628,875,899]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was originally classified as
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E55B2B59EFE3AE4E5" box="[232,434,905,928]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Reynoutria" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E55B2B59EFE3AE4E5" box="[232,434,905,928]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Reynoutria japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
by Houttuyn in 1777 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E57C2B59DFF7CE4FA" author="Bailey JP & Conolly AP" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="93 - 110" refId="ref5805" refString="Bailey JP, Conolly AP (2000) Prize-winners to pariahs - a history of Japanese knotweed s. l. (Polygonaceae) in the British Isles. Watsonia 23: 93 - 110" type="journal article" year="2000">Bailey and Conolly 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E55A5B5B0FE49E4FA" author="Beerling DJ & Bailey JP & Conolly AP" box="[255,449,934,959]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="959 - 979" refId="ref6029" refString="Beerling DJ, Bailey JP, Conolly AP (1994) Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene. J Ecol 82: 959 - 979" type="journal article" year="1994">Beerling et al. 1994</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<tableCitation id="C6B270D703082C4E5497B5B0FD90E4FA" box="[461,536,935,959]" captionStart="Table 1" captionStartId="1.[108,157,182,199]" captionTargetBox="[129,750,249,450]" captionTargetId="graphics-995@1.[108,772,235,454]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="Table 1. Summary of change in nomenclature of FOllopiO jOponicO since its first classification in 1777." httpUri="http://table.plazi.org/id/DF4F15E403082C4E5536B6A1FEAAE79A" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" tableUuid="DF4F15E403082C4E5536B6A1FEAAE79A">Table 1</tableCitation>
|
||
). In 1848 it was reclassified as
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5590B5D4FE6FE499" authority="Reinw." authorityName="Reinw." box="[202,487,963,988]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sieboldii">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5590B5D4FE1FE49E" box="[202,407,963,987]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Polygonum sieboldii</emphasis>
|
||
Reinw.
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(=
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E574FB5D4FF7CE4BF" authority="Sieb. & Zucc." authorityName="Sieb. & Zucc." class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="cuspidatum">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E574FB5D4FC8CE49E" box="[533,772,963,987]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Polygonum cuspidatum</emphasis>
|
||
Sieb. & Zucc.
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
) in reference to Phillipe von Siebold, who originally brought specimens to
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E540AB5E8FE7CE352" box="[336,500,1023,1047]" name="Netherlands" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">the Netherlands</collectingCountry>
|
||
from his sojourn in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5791B5E9FC8CE350" box="[715,772,1022,1045]" name="Japan" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5528B20BFEFBE371" author="Bailey JP & Conolly AP" box="[114,371,1052,1076]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="93 - 110" refId="ref5805" refString="Bailey JP, Conolly AP (2000) Prize-winners to pariahs - a history of Japanese knotweed s. l. (Polygonaceae) in the British Isles. Watsonia 23: 93 - 110" type="journal article" year="2000">Bailey and Conolly 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). These two names were combined by Makino in 1901 to create the new nomenclature
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E573FB22EFE82E32A" authority="Makino" authorityName="Makino" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="reynoutria">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E573FB22EFF3FE32B" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Polygonum reynoutria</emphasis>
|
||
Makino
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E544FB240FD81E32A" author="Bailey JP & Conolly AP" box="[277,521,1111,1135]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="93 - 110" refId="ref5805" refString="Bailey JP, Conolly AP (2000) Prize-winners to pariahs - a history of Japanese knotweed s. l. (Polygonaceae) in the British Isles. Watsonia 23: 93 - 110" type="journal article" year="2000">Bailey and Conolly 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The knotweed complex was first classified in the genus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E54FDB264FE70E3CE" authorityName="Oudemans" authorityYear="1905" box="[423,504,1139,1163]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E54FDB264FE70E3CE" box="[423,504,1139,1163]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
by Decraene and Akeroyd in 1988 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5597B285FE30E3EF" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" box="[205,440,1170,1194]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5492B286FD7EE3EF" author="Decraene LR & Akeroyd JR" box="[456,758,1169,1194]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="321 - 371" refId="ref6299" refString="Decraene LR, Akeroyd JR (1988) Generic limits in Polygonum and related genera (Polygonaceae) on the basis of floral characters. Bot J Linn Soc 98: 321 - 371" type="journal article" year="1988">Decraene and Akeroyd 1988</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Throughout the literature, authors use the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E57D4B2B9FD76E383" box="[654,766,1198,1222]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E57D4B2B9FD76E383" box="[654,766,1198,1222]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Polygonum</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5536B2DBFF53E3A6" box="[108,219,1228,1251]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Reynoutria" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B2DBFF53E3A6" box="[108,219,1228,1251]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Reynoutria</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E544AB2DCFEE9E3A6" authorityName="Oudemans" authorityYear="1905" box="[272,353,1227,1251]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E544AB2DCFEE9E3A6" box="[272,353,1227,1251]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
genera. Confusion with the nomenclature of knotweed continues due to the use of multiple specific epithets. Different countries also have different preferences on the nomenclature they use (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5440B333FDCEE279" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" box="[282,582,1316,1340]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C32A16E703082C4E5536B364FBFDE481" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" type="distribution">
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5536B364FEF2E2CC" blockId="1.[108,378,1395,1417]" box="[108,378,1395,1417]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B364FEF2E2CC" bold="true" box="[108,378,1395,1417]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Distribution and Spread</emphasis>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5536B389FEE3E052" blockId="1.[108,773,1438,1991]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5536B389FE93E2F0" box="[108,283,1438,1462]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B389FE93E2F0" box="[108,283,1438,1462]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was commercially available in Europe in 1848 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5528B3ABFE01E291" author="Bailey JP & Conolly AP" box="[114,393,1468,1492]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="93 - 110" refId="ref5805" refString="Bailey JP, Conolly AP (2000) Prize-winners to pariahs - a history of Japanese knotweed s. l. (Polygonaceae) in the British Isles. Watsonia 23: 93 - 110" type="journal article" year="2000">Bailey and Conolly 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5497B3ABFDABE291" box="[461,547,1468,1492]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">England</collectingCountry>
|
||
, the first record of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5536B3CEFF53E2B5" box="[108,219,1497,1520]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B3CEFF53E2B5" box="[108,219,1497,1520]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
dates to the late 1840s (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5494B3CEFDCDE2B4" author="Bailey JP" box="[462,581,1497,1521]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" refId="ref5646" refString="Bailey JP (1994) The reproductive biology and fertility of Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed) and its hybrids in the British Isles. Pages 141 - 158 in de Waal LC, Child LE, Wade PM, Brock JH, eds. Ecology and Management of Invasive Riparian Plants. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons" type="book" year="1994">Bailey 1994</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The initial introduction of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5584B3E1FEC6E148" box="[222,334,1526,1549]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5584B3E1FEC6E148" box="[222,334,1526,1549]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
to
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5428B3E0FE4EE14A" box="[370,454,1527,1551]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">England</collectingCountry>
|
||
was a single male-sterile clone that successfully spread and created a massive knotweed infestation that exists across the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E54DEB025FDBCE10F" box="[388,564,1586,1610]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United Kingdom</collectingCountry>
|
||
today (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E57DDB025FF15E122" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E55F4B058FE70E122" author="Hollingsworth ML & Bailey JP" box="[174,504,1615,1639]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="463 - 472" refId="ref6731" refString="Hollingsworth ML, Bailey JP (2000) Evidence for massive clonal growth in the invasive weed Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed). Bot J Linn Soc 133: 463 - 472" type="journal article" year="2000">Hollingsworth and Bailey 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The earliest herbarium record of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E558EB07BFECDE1C6" box="[212,325,1644,1667]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E558EB07BFECDE1C6" box="[212,325,1644,1667]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E54CEB07BFD95E1C1" box="[404,541,1644,1668]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
is from 1873 (Barney 2006). Knotweed (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5479B09EFE18E1E5" box="[291,400,1673,1696]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5479B09EFE18E1E5" box="[291,400,1673,1696]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
) was being sold in
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49F48B8E03082C4E5710B09DFD3EE1E7" box="[586,694,1674,1698]" country="United States of America" name="Minnesota" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Minnesota</collectingRegion>
|
||
as early as 1908 (
|
||
<figureCitation id="130B59E903082C4E5590B0B0FEA9E1FA" box="[202,289,1703,1727]" captionStart="Figure 1" captionStartId="2.[112,164,1082,1098]" captionTargetBox="[156,1437,176,1055]" captionTargetId="figure-581@2.[156,1437,176,1055]" captionTargetPageId="2" captionText="Figure 1. An advertisement from the 1908 catalogue Jewell Trees, Seeds Ond PlOnts advertising FOllopiO jOponicO (known as Polygonum cuspidOtum at the time) for sale in Minnesota. https://umedia.lib.umn.edu/item/p16022coll265:2855?q=polygonum+cuspidatum." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12534130" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/12534130/files/figure.png" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Figure 1</figureCitation>
|
||
) (The Jewell Nursery Co. 1908), but residents could have purchased knotweed earlier from nurseries on the East Coast of the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5474B0F5FE31E1BF" box="[302,441,1762,1786]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
(Maule’ s Seed Catalogue 1895; James Vick’ s Sons 1898).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E55D6B10CFA94E6D2" blockId="1.[108,773,1438,1991]" lastBlockId="1.[812,1477,177,964]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E55D6B10CFEEDE076" box="[140,357,1819,1843]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E55D6B10CFEEDE076" box="[140,357,1819,1843]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
arrived in Europe in 1864 at the botanic gardens of
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49F48B8E03082C4E5585B12DFEE6E017" box="[223,366,1850,1874]" country="Russia" name="Saint Petersburg" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">St. Petersburg</collectingRegion>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5420B12DFE33E017" box="[378,443,1850,1874]" name="Russia" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Russia</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5493B12DFD7EE017" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" box="[457,758,1850,1874]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5536B141FEC4E02B" box="[108,332,1878,1902]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5536B141FF35E02B" box="[108,189,1878,1902]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E55B6B141FEC4E02B" box="[236,332,1878,1902]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was not recorded in Europe until the 1980s, when it was first described by Chrtek and Chrtková, although it is now known to have occurred earlier, as early as 1872, and spread undetected (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E54E2B1B8FD7EE082" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" box="[440,758,1967,1991]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The undetected spread is primarily due to the difficulty in visually identifying the hybrid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5108B6D8FA3EE7A2" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" box="[1106,1462,207,231]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Morphological traits of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5140B6FBFB21E646" box="[1050,1193,235,259]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5140B6FBFBA7E646" box="[1050,1071,236,259]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5113B6FCFB21E646" box="[1097,1193,235,259]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are variable and can exhibit traits of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E56DEB71EFC7CE665" box="[900,1012,265,288]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E56DEB71EFC7CE665" box="[900,1012,265,288]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5141B71EFB3FE664" box="[1051,1207,265,289]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5141B71EFB3FE664" box="[1051,1207,265,289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E519FB71EFA1FE664" box="[1221,1431,265,289]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E519FB71EFA9EE664" box="[1221,1302,265,289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E506DB71EFA1FE664" box="[1335,1431,265,289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was confirmed in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E56B8B730FBE3E67A" box="[994,1131,295,319]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
in 2001 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E518AB730FCD5E619" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Interestingly,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E56A6B753FB04E61E" box="[1020,1164,323,347]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E56A6B753FB99E61E" box="[1020,1041,324,347]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5177B754FB04E61E" box="[1069,1164,323,347]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was not described in its native range in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E56D0B776FC4BE63D" box="[906,963,353,376]" name="Japan" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
until 1997 because the parental species were not sympatric in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E56E9B769FC64E6D0" box="[947,1004,382,405]" name="Japan" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
until that time (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E51CDB768FA87E6D2" author="Bailey JP" box="[1175,1295,383,407]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5616B78BFBFDE481" blockId="1.[812,1477,177,964]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
A total of 47% of 92 knotweed populations sampled in the first transcontinental genetic study of knotweed in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5060B7ADFA4CE697" box="[1338,1476,442,466]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
were identical to the British male-sterile clone of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5015B7C0FBC9E549" authority="(Grimsby and Kesseli 2009)" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5015B7C0FA4CE6AB" box="[1359,1476,471,494]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5669B7E3FBB1E549" author="Grimsby JL & Kesseli R" box="[819,1081,500,524]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1943 - 1946" refId="ref6612" refString="Grimsby JL, Kesseli R (2009) Genetic composition of invasive Japanese knotweed s. l. in the United States. Biol Invasions 12: 1943 - 1946" type="journal article" year="2009">Grimsby and Kesseli 2009</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
; this included one population sampled from Duluth, MN (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E56ACB405FA8FE56F" author="Grimsby JL & Kesseli R" box="[1014,1287,530,554]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1943 - 1946" refId="ref6612" refString="Grimsby JL, Kesseli R (2009) Genetic composition of invasive Japanese knotweed s. l. in the United States. Biol Invasions 12: 1943 - 1946" type="journal article" year="2009">Grimsby and Kesseli 2009</bibRefCitation>
|
||
; see supplemental information here: http://www.genetics.umb.edu). As many as 54% of samples in this study were found to be
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E51A3B45BFAEEE526" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1273,1382,588,611]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E51A3B45BFAEEE526" box="[1273,1382,588,611]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(50 samples), 3%
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E56D4B47EFBA0E5C4" box="[910,1064,617,641]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E56D4B47EFBA0E5C4" box="[910,1064,617,641]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(3 samples), and 42%
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5057B47EFA14E5C4" box="[1293,1436,617,641]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5057B47EFAA9E5C5" box="[1293,1313,617,640]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5067B47EFA14E5C4" box="[1341,1436,617,641]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(39 samples). This contrasts with a study of knotweed in the western
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5676B4B3FC39E5F9" box="[812,945,676,700]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
that found
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E5178B4B3FB26E5FE" box="[1058,1198,675,699]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5178B4B3FBBEE5FE" box="[1058,1078,676,699]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5114B4B4FB26E5FE" box="[1102,1198,675,699]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
to be more common than
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E50EBB4B3FC09E59D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E50EBB4B3FC09E59D" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
with a ratio of 5:1 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5103B4D5FA90E59F" author="Gaskin JF & Schwarzlander M & Grevstad FS & Haverhals MA & Bourchier RS & Miller TW" box="[1113,1304,705,730]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="2127 - 2136" refId="ref6514" refString="Gaskin JF, Schwarzlander M, Grevstad FS, Haverhals MA, Bourchier RS, Miller TW (2014) Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America. Biol Invasions 16: 2127 - 2136" type="journal article" year="2014">Gaskin et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The difference between these two studies could potentially be attributed to the fact that the Grimsby and Kesseli study specifically requested collaborators to collect “Japanese knotweed,” which may have dissuaded collectors from sending in samples of other taxa. There is potential that the composition of knotweed taxa in
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49F48B8E03082C4E5183B543FACDE429" box="[1241,1349,852,876]" country="United States of America" name="Minnesota" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Minnesota</collectingRegion>
|
||
is similar to that seen in other areas across the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E51C7B565FAA1E4CF" box="[1181,1321,882,906]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
, but without a thorough sampling and genetic testing, it is impossible to know which species is most prevalent.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C32A16E703082C4B5676B5EAFA40E2ED" lastPageId="4" lastPageNumber="621" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" type="description">
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5676B5EAFC32E356" blockId="1.[812,954,1021,1043]" box="[812,954,1021,1043]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5676B5EAFC32E356" bold="true" box="[812,954,1021,1043]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Invasiveness</emphasis>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5676B23FFB7FE2BD" blockId="1.[812,1477,1064,1704]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
It is necessary to first understand what unique characteristics make knotweed such a strong invader in order to ultimately control it. Invasive nonnative plant species have many effects on environments in their adventive ranges. Invasive alien plants reduce the overall fitness and growth of local plant species, decrease plant species abundance and diversity, and decrease animal species’ fitness and abundance (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E568FB2CFFBE7E3B5" author="Vila M & Espinar JL & Hejda M & Hulme PE & Jarosik V & Maron JL & Pergl J & Schaffner U & Sun Y & Pysek P" box="[981,1135,1240,1264]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="702 - 708" refId="ref7807" refString="Vila M, Espinar JL, Hejda M, Hulme PE, Jarosik V, Maron JL, Pergl J, Schaffner U, Sun Y, Pysek P (2011) Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a metaanalysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecol Lett 14: 702 - 708" type="journal article" year="2011">Vilà et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds have been shown to reduce the overall biomass of macroinvertebrates in their stands by up to 60% and also negatively impact the biomass, cover, and species richness of native plants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E510DB327FB5AE20D" author="Lavoie C" box="[1111,1234,1328,1352]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="2319 - 2337" refId="ref7047" refString="Lavoie C (2017) The impact of invasive knotweed species (Reynoutria spp.) on the environment: review and research perspectives. Biol Invasions 19: 2319 - 2337" type="journal article" year="2017">Lavoie 2017</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It has been found that 1.6 to 10 times as many species grow outside knotweed stands as compared to within (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E515FB37CFB47E2C6" author="Aguilera AG & Alpert P & Dukes JS & Harrington R" box="[1029,1231,1386,1411]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1243 - 1252" refId="ref5607" refString="Aguilera AG, Alpert P, Dukes JS, Harrington R (2010) Impacts of the invasive plant Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) on plant communities and ecosystem processes. Biol Invasions 12: 1243 - 1252" type="journal article" year="2010">Aguilera et al. 2010</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds also negatively impact riparian areas by changing leaf litter nitrogen composition (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E56D4B3B1FBA5E2FB" author="Urgenson LS" box="[910,1069,1446,1470]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" refId="ref7709" refString="Urgenson LS (2006) The Ecological Consequences of Knotweed Invasion into Riparian Forests. MS thesis. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 65 p" type="book" year="2006">Urgenson 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) and reducing ecosystem services such as access to riverbanks (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5143B3D4FB0BE29E" author="Kidd H" box="[1049,1155,1475,1499]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="99 - 100" refId="ref6958" refString="Kidd H (2000) Japanese knotweed - the world' s largest female! Pestic Outlook 11: 99 - 100" type="journal article" year="2000">Kidd 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds are also often considered aesthetically displeasing (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5127B3F7FB61E2BD" author="Kidd H" box="[1149,1257,1504,1528]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="99 - 100" refId="ref6958" refString="Kidd H (2000) Japanese knotweed - the world' s largest female! Pestic Outlook 11: 99 - 100" type="journal article" year="2000">Kidd 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5616B3E9FA4CE1ED" blockId="1.[812,1477,1064,1704]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
Managing and eradicating invasive plants can also be extremely costly. An estimated
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5159B00CFBAAE176" box="[1027,1058,1563,1587]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">US</collectingCountry>
|
||
$500 million is spent yearly on the management of nonnative plant species just on residential properties alone in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E56EEB041FBB6E12B" box="[948,1086,1622,1646]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5114B041FAAAE12B" author="Pimentel D & Zuniga R & Morrison D" box="[1102,1314,1621,1646]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="273 - 288" refId="ref7394" refString="Pimentel D, Zuniga R, Morrison D (2005) Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol Econ 52: 273 - 288" type="journal article" year="2005">Pimentel et al. 2005</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It would cost an estimated €32.3 million (
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E5109B064FBFCE1CE" box="[1107,1140,1651,1675]" name="United States of America" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">US</collectingCountry>
|
||
$38 million) annually to control all the knotweed populations in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC03082C4E512EB087FB5BE1ED" box="[1140,1235,1680,1704]" name="Germany" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Germany</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E51BAB087FA3EE1ED" author="Reinhardt F & Herle M & Bastiansen F & Streit B" box="[1248,1462,1680,1704]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" refId="ref7428" refString="Reinhardt F, Herle M, Bastiansen F, Streit B (2003) Economic Impact of the Spread of Alien Species in Germany. Berlin: Federal Environmental Agency of Germany. 83 p" type="book" year="2003">Reinhardt et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4E5676B0C5FC32E1AC" blockId="1.[812,954,1746,1769]" box="[812,954,1746,1769]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
<heading id="D0C7F20003082C4E5676B0C5FC32E1AC" box="[812,954,1746,1769]" fontSize="10" level="2" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" reason="2">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5676B0C5FC32E1AC" bold="true" box="[812,954,1746,1769]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">Reproduction</emphasis>
|
||
</heading>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C03082C4D5676B0E8FC80E296" blockId="1.[812,1476,1790,1991]" lastBlockId="2.[112,777,1202,1990]" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="619" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">
|
||
Knotweed can spread asexually by both rhizomes and adventitious rooting of stem fragments (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E5166B10BFB6EE071" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[1084,1254,1820,1844]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweed primarily spreads via rhizome dispersal occurring from floods or human activity in the adventive range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D03082C4E512BB140FAABE02A" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[1137,1315,1878,1903]" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Reproduction via adventitious rooting of stem fragments results in lower levels of regeneration for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E56A3B186FBE2E0ED" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1017,1130,1937,1960]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E56A3B186FBE2E0ED" box="[1017,1130,1937,1960]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E51F9B186FAB0E0ED" box="[1187,1336,1936,1960]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E51F9B186FB3FE0ED" box="[1187,1207,1937,1960]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E5182B187FAB0E0ED" box="[1240,1336,1936,1960]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
as compared with regeneration from rhizomes. However,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF03082C4E51A1B1B8FA10E083" box="[1275,1432,1966,1990]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="1" pageNumber="618" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E03082C4E51A1B1B8FA10E083" box="[1275,1432,1966,1990]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="618">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has higher levels of regeneration from adventitious rooting of stem fragments and only low levels of regeneration when grown from rhizomes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5584B2FAFE20E240" author="Bimova K & Mandak B & Pysek P" box="[222,424,1261,1285]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1 - 11" refId="ref6117" refString="Bimova K, Mandak B, Pysek P (2003) experimental study of vegetative regeneration in four invasive Reynoutria taxa (Polygonaceae). Plant Ecol 166: 1 - 11" type="journal article" year="2003">Bímová et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Overall, vegetative regeneration is highest in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D55ABB31DFDDDE266" authority="(Bimova et al. 2003)" baseAuthorityName="Bimova" baseAuthorityYear="2003" box="[241,597,1290,1315]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D55ABB31DFE8DE264" box="[241,261,1290,1313]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D547BB31DFE09E267" box="[289,385,1290,1314]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D54D4B31CFDC3E266" author="Bimova K & Mandak B & Pysek P" box="[398,587,1290,1315]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1 - 11" refId="ref6117" refString="Bimova K, Mandak B, Pysek P (2003) experimental study of vegetative regeneration in four invasive Reynoutria taxa (Polygonaceae). Plant Ecol 166: 1 - 11" type="journal article" year="2003">Bímová et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Knotweeds
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D578CB31CFF20E205" form="shoot" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" rank="form">form shoot</taxonomicName>
|
||
clumps or crowns composed of dead shoots from previous growth years and underground wintering buds that give rise to new aerial shoots in the spring (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D54DAB374FDA3E23E" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[384,555,1378,1403]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D576CB375FF29E2DD" author="Dauer JT & Jongejans E" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1 - 11" refId="ref6272" refString="Dauer JT, Jongejans E (2013) Elucidating the population dynamics of Japanese knotweed using integral projection models. PLoS ONE 8: 1 - 11" type="journal article" year="2013">Dauer and Jongejans 2013</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Size of crowns varies between species, with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D57CEB397FC80E2D2" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[660,776,1408,1431]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D57CEB397FC80E2D2" box="[660,776,1408,1431]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
having larger crowns than
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D54C0B38AFDB4E2F1" box="[410,572,1436,1460]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D54C0B38AFDB4E2F1" box="[410,572,1436,1460]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, while the hybrid,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D552AB3ACFF77E297" box="[112,255,1466,1490]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D552AB3ACFF0CE297" box="[112,132,1467,1490]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D55C5B3ADFF77E297" box="[159,255,1466,1490]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, has an intermediate crown size (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5715B3ACFD72E296" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[591,762,1466,1491]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<caption id="DF4F15E4030B2C4D552AB22DFCDAE327" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12534130" ID-Zenodo-Dep="12534130" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/12534130/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" startId="2.[112,164,1082,1098]" targetBox="[156,1437,176,1055]" targetPageId="2" targetType="figure">
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030B2C4D552AB22DFCDAE327" blockId="2.[112,1480,1082,1123]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D552AB22DFF35E30F" bold="true" box="[112,189,1082,1098]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Figure 1.</emphasis>
|
||
An advertisement from
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D54D9B22DFE4FE30F" author="The Jewell Nursery Co" box="[387,455,1082,1098]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref7621" refString="The Jewell Nursery Co. (1908) Jewell Trees, Seeds and Plants. University of Minnesota Libraries, Andersen Horticultural Library. https: // umedia. lib. umn. edu / item / p 16022 coll 265: 2855. Accessed: September 30, 2021" type="url" year="1908">the 1908</bibRefCitation>
|
||
catalogue
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D577BB22DFC99E30F" box="[545,785,1082,1098]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Jewell Trees, Seeds and Plants</emphasis>
|
||
advertising
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D562EB22DFC70E30F" box="[884,1016,1082,1098]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
(known as
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D510DB22DFA85E30F" box="[1111,1293,1082,1098]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D510DB22DFB25E30F" box="[1111,1197,1082,1098]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Polygonum</taxonomicName>
|
||
cuspidatum
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
at the time) for sale in Minnesota. https://umedia.lib.umn.edu/item/p16022coll265:2855?q=polygonum
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D57B8B245FCC6E327" box="[738,846,1106,1123]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="cuspidatum">+cuspidatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030B2C4D55CAB3C0FB8EE2DD" blockId="2.[112,777,1202,1990]" lastBlockId="2.[816,1481,1202,1432]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D55CAB3C0FEB7E2AA" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[144,319,1495,1519]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D55CAB3C0FEB7E2AA" box="[144,319,1495,1519]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
frequently reproduces via seed in its native range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D55EEB3E1FEA2E14B" author="Bailey JP" box="[180,298,1526,1550]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D546EB3E2FD95E14B" author="Bram MR & Mcnair JN" box="[308,541,1525,1550]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="759 - 767" refId="ref6149" refString="Bram MR, Mcnair JN (2004) Seed germinability and its seasonal onset of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum). Weed Sci 52: 759 - 767" type="journal article" year="2004">Bram and Mcnair 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) and has been reported to reproduce via seed in the adventive range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5717B004FF29E10D" author="Bram MR & Mcnair JN" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="759 - 767" refId="ref6149" refString="Bram MR, Mcnair JN (2004) Seed germinability and its seasonal onset of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum). Weed Sci 52: 759 - 767" type="journal article" year="2004">Bram and Mcnair 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D55F1B027FE20E10D" author="Forman J & Kesseli RV" box="[171,424,1584,1608]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="586 - 592" refId="ref6486" refString="Forman J, Kesseli RV (2003) Sexual reproduction in the invasive species Fallopia japonica (Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 90: 586 - 592" type="journal article" year="2003">Forman and Kesseli 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), although this is thought to be less common than asexual reproduction (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D54BEB059FD06E123" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[484,654,1613,1638]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweed produces prolific seed, with a study of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D54A6B07CFDE3E1C7" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[508,619,1643,1666]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D54A6B07CFDE3E1C7" box="[508,619,1643,1666]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D57FAB07CFF25E1DA" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D57FAB07CFF25E1DA" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
in Pennsylvania reporting 50,000 to 150,000 seeds annually per stem (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5585B0B1FE0BE1FB" author="Niewinski AT" box="[223,387,1702,1726]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref7329" refString="Niewinski AT (1998) The Reproductive Ecology of Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) and Giant Knotweed (Polygonum sachalinensis) Seed. MS thesis. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University. 49 p" type="book" year="1998">Niewinski 1998</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds have high germination rates of up to 92% (field germinations) (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D571BB0D4FF29E1BD" author="Bram MR & Mcnair JN" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="759 - 767" refId="ref6149" refString="Bram MR, Mcnair JN (2004) Seed germinability and its seasonal onset of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum). Weed Sci 52: 759 - 767" type="journal article" year="2004">Bram and Mcnair 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), 93% (dried seed) (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5426B0F7FDE4E1BD" author="Groeneveld E & Belzile FC & Lavoie C" box="[380,620,1760,1784]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="459 - 466" refId="ref6680" refString="Groeneveld E, Belzile FC, Lavoie C (2014) Sexual reproduction of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica s. l.) at its northern distribution limit: new evidence of the effect of climate warming on an invasive species. Am J Bot 101: 459 - 466" type="journal article" year="2014">Groeneveld et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), and even up to 100% (overwintered seed) (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D548BB0E9FD72E053" author="Forman J & Kesseli RV" box="[465,762,1790,1814]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="586 - 592" refId="ref6486" refString="Forman J, Kesseli RV (2003) Sexual reproduction in the invasive species Fallopia japonica (Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 90: 586 - 592" type="journal article" year="2003">Forman and Kesseli 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Germination has been shown to rely on seed maturity levels (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D552DB12EFEFDE014" author="Bram MR & Mcnair JN" box="[119,373,1849,1873]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="759 - 767" refId="ref6149" refString="Bram MR, Mcnair JN (2004) Seed germinability and its seasonal onset of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum). Weed Sci 52: 759 - 767" type="journal article" year="2004">Bram and Mcnair 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds are dioecious, but there are known cases of gynodioecious plants in each taxa (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5793B141FF56E0CE" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D55B6B164FE3FE0CE" author="Beerling DJ & Bailey JP & Conolly AP" box="[236,439,1907,1931]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="959 - 979" refId="ref6029" refString="Beerling DJ, Bailey JP, Conolly AP (1994) Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene. J Ecol 82: 959 - 979" type="journal article" year="1994">Beerling et al. 1994</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D549CB164FDF0E0CE" author="Holm AK & Elameen A & Oliver BW & Brandsaeter LO & FlOistad IS & Brurberg MB" box="[454,632,1907,1931]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="755 - 764" refId="ref6810" refString="Holm AK, Elameen A, Oliver BW, Brandsaeter LO, FlOistad IS, Brurberg MB (2018) Low genetic variation of invasive Fallopia spp. in their northernmost European distribution range. Ecol Evol 8: 755 - 764" type="journal article" year="2018">Holm et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D57DDB164FF29E0EC" author="Karaer F & Terzioglu S & Kutbay HG" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="606 - 610" refId="ref6919" refString="Karaer F, Terzioglu S, Kutbay HG (2020) A new genus record for the flora of Turkey: Reynoutria (Polygonaceae). Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam Universitesi Tarim ve Doga Dergisi 23: 606 - 610" type="journal article" year="2020">Karaer et al. 2020</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D55F5B186FEC6E0EC" author="Niewinski AT" box="[175,334,1937,1961]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref7329" refString="Niewinski AT (1998) The Reproductive Ecology of Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) and Giant Knotweed (Polygonum sachalinensis) Seed. MS thesis. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University. 49 p" type="book" year="1998">Niewinski 1998</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). There are also reports of androdioecious knotweed from the Amami Islands of
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030B2C4D5740B1B9FDDBE080" box="[538,595,1966,1989]" name="Japan" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
(Mitsuru Hotta, personal communication, in
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5106B2A4FB5BE38E" author="Bailey JP" box="[1116,1235,1203,1227]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). There is currently no research on knotweed pollen viability reported in the literature. Sexual reproduction may not be an important management concern if there is no pollen donor present. On the other hand, if many viable pollen donors are present, then sexual reproduction is a major concern and a priority for management decisions. That is why it is critical that research be conducted on male and female fertility of knotweed.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030B2C4D566AB3DDFB8CE2A4" blockId="2.[816,1028,1482,1505]" box="[816,1028,1482,1505]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">
|
||
<heading id="D0C7F200030B2C4D566AB3DDFB8CE2A4" box="[816,1028,1482,1505]" fontSize="10" level="2" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" reason="2">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D566AB3DDFB8CE2A4" bold="true" box="[816,1028,1482,1505]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Structure of Growth</emphasis>
|
||
</heading>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030B2C4C566AB3E0FE88E41E" blockId="2.[816,1481,1526,1991]" lastBlockId="3.[108,773,805,1094]" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="620" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">
|
||
A study in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030B2C4D56E5B3E0FBD3E14A" box="[959,1115,1527,1551]" name="Czech Republic" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Czech Republic</collectingCountry>
|
||
found that, on average, invasive species as a whole were 1.2 m taller than native species across all habitat
|
||
<typeStatus id="548BFBCE030B2C4D5603B026FC05E10C" box="[857,909,1585,1609]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">types</typeStatus>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D56C6B026FBD2E10C" author="Divisek J & Chytry M & Beckage B & Gotelli NJ & Lososova Z & Pysek P & Molofsky J" box="[924,1114,1585,1609]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1 - 10" refId="ref6333" refString="Divisek J, Chytry M, Beckage B, Gotelli NJ, Lososova Z, Pysek P, Molofsky J (2018) Similarity of introduced plant species to native ones facilitates naturalization, but differences enhance invasion success. Nat Commun 9: 1 - 10" type="journal article" year="2018">Divíšek et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds are incredibly tall and range in height from 2 to 4 m thus shading out other plants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D566DB07BFC65E1C1" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[823,1005,1643,1668]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D56A6B07BFB48E1C1" author="Bimova K & Mandak B & Pysek P" box="[1020,1216,1643,1668]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" refId="ref6056" refString="Bimova K, Mandak B, Pysek P (2001) Experimental control of Reynoutria congeners: a comparative study of a hybrid and its parents. Pages 283 - 290 in Brundu G, Brock J, Camarda I, Child L, Wade M, eds. Plant Invasions: Species Ecology and Ecosystem Management. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2001">Bímová et al. 2001</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D5182B07CFA0FE1C6" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1240,1415,1643,1667]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D5182B07CFA0FE1C6" box="[1240,1415,1643,1667]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has a smaller overall stature ranging from
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030B2C4D51FDB09EFB76E1E5" box="[1191,1278,1673,1697]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.5" metricValueMax="3.0" metricValueMin="2.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" unit="m" value="2.5" valueMax="3.0" valueMin="2.0">2 to 3 m</quantity>
|
||
in height;
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D5037B09EFCF2E1FB" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D5037B09EFCF2E1FB" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is the tallest of the species and reaches
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030B2C4D505BB0B0FAA0E1F8" box="[1281,1320,1702,1727]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" unit="m" value="4.0">4 m</quantity>
|
||
in height; while the hybrid
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D56C6B0D3FBA1E19E" box="[924,1065,1731,1755]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D56C6B0D3FC39E19E" box="[924,945,1732,1755]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D5693B0D4FBA1E19E" box="[969,1065,1731,1755]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has the greatest range in height of
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030B2C4D50DAB0D3FCCDE1BD" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.25" metricValueMax="4.0" metricValueMin="2.5" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" unit="m" value="3.25" valueMax="4.0" valueMin="2.5">2.5 to 4 m</quantity>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D560BB0F6FC76E1BC" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[849,1022,1761,1785]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds create a monoculture (
|
||
<figureCitation id="130B59E9030B2C4D5030B0F6FA37E1BC" box="[1386,1471,1761,1785]" captionStart="Figure 2" captionStartId="3.[108,160,686,702]" captionTargetBox="[120,760,176,658]" captionTargetId="figure-1001@3.[120,761,176,658]" captionTargetPageId="3" captionText="Figure 2. Example of a knotweed monoculture growing in Minnesota. Photograph shows a FOllopiO × bohemicO population from Brooklyn Center, MN, on August 16, 2019." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12534134" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/12534134/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">Figure 2</figureCitation>
|
||
) with large leaves that form an extremely dense canopy, shading other plants throughout the majority of the growing season, making it difficult for smaller plants to grow in the same area (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D50D3B12DFC1EE02A" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D56F8B140FB21E02A" author="Siemens TJ & Blossey B" box="[930,1193,1879,1903]" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="776 - 783" refId="ref7581" refString="Siemens TJ, Blossey B (2007) An evaluation of mechanisms preventing growth and survival of two native species in invasive Bohemian knotweed (Fallopia × bohemica, Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 94: 776 - 783" type="journal article" year="2007">Siemens and Blossey 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This is especially true of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030B2C4D50EFB140FC39E0CE" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030B2C4D50EFB140FC39E0CE" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="619">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, whose leaves can reach
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030B2C4D51F4B163FB65E0CE" box="[1198,1261,1908,1932]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" unit="cm" value="40.0">40 cm</quantity>
|
||
in length (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5006B163FC17E0EF" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). However, it is worth noting that
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030B2C4D5043B185FCFAE082" author="Moravcova L & Pysek P & Jarosik V & Zakravsky P" pageId="2" pageNumber="619" pagination="31 - 47" refId="ref7253" refString="Moravcova L, Pysek P, Jarosik V, Zakravsky P (2011) Potential phytotoxic and shading effects of invasive Fallopia (Polygonaceae) taxa on the germination of native dominant species. NeoBiota 9: 31 - 47" type="journal article" year="2011">Moravcová et al. (2011)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
concluded that shading is unlikely the primary invasive mechanism of knotweeds, as light treatment studies yielded inconclusive results.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<caption id="DF4F15E4030A2C4C5536B4B9FF1FE5AB" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12534134" ID-Zenodo-Dep="12534134" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/12534134/files/figure.png" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" startId="3.[108,160,686,702]" targetBox="[120,760,176,658]" targetPageId="3" targetType="figure">
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5536B4B9FF1FE5AB" blockId="3.[108,774,685,750]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B4B9FF31E5FB" bold="true" box="[108,185,686,702]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Figure 2.</emphasis>
|
||
Example of a knotweed monoculture growing in Minnesota. Photograph shows a
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C55EEB4D2FF79E590" box="[180,241,709,725]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5451B4D2FEDEE590" box="[267,342,709,725]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
population from Brooklyn Center, MN, on August 16, 2019.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C55D6B577FDFFE303" blockId="3.[108,773,805,1094]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
It is generally accepted that knotweed rhizomes can grow up to
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C5536B56AFF1CE4D1" box="[108,148,893,916]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="7.0" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="m" value="7.0">7 m</quantity>
|
||
from the crown of origin, but recent research has shown that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5536B58CFF53E4F7" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[108,219,923,946]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B58CFF53E4F7" box="[108,219,923,946]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
rhizomes typically extend no more than
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C57DBB58CFD22E4F7" box="[641,682,923,947]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="m" value="4.0">4 m</quantity>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C57E2B58CFF58E494" author="Fennell M & Wade M & Bacon KL" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref6444" refString="Fennell M, Wade M, Bacon KL (2018) Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica): an analysis of capacity to cause structural damage (compared to other plants) and typical rhizome extension. PeerJ 6: e 5246" type="journal volume" year="2018">Fennell et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Still, knotweed rhizomes are a formidable opponent, as they can grow up through asphalt (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C549EB5C1FDE2E4AB" author="Wade M & Child L & Adachi N" box="[452,618,981,1006]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="31 - 33" refId="ref7865" refString="Wade M, Child L, Adachi N (1996) Japanese knotweed - a cultivated colonizer. Biological Sciences Review 8: 31 - 33" type="journal article" year="1996">Wade et al. 1996</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). They can also cause bank destabilization when growing alongside water bodies, as the rhizomes are less able to bind soil together compared with some native riparian plants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C54C8B239FDE2E303" author="Reinhardt F & Herle M & Bastiansen F & Streit B" box="[402,618,1069,1094]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref7428" refString="Reinhardt F, Herle M, Bastiansen F, Streit B (2003) Economic Impact of the Spread of Alien Species in Germany. Berlin: Federal Environmental Agency of Germany. 83 p" type="book" year="2003">Reinhardt et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5536B267FE84E3C2" blockId="3.[108,268,1136,1159]" box="[108,268,1136,1159]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<heading id="D0C7F200030A2C4C5536B267FE84E3C2" box="[108,268,1136,1159]" fontSize="10" level="2" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" reason="2">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B267FE84E3C2" bold="true" box="[108,268,1136,1159]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Soil Conditions</emphasis>
|
||
</heading>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5536B28AFF6BE045" blockId="3.[108,773,1180,1792]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<location id="8EEF13B7030A2C4C5536B28AFF5BE3F0" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:0399F47A03082C4B5536B534FA40E2ED:8EEF13B7030A2C4C5536B28AFF5BE3F0" box="[108,211,1181,1205]" country="Japan" municipality="The" name="Knotweed" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Knotweed</location>
|
||
is an early successional species growing on volcanic ash and recent lava flows in its native habitat in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C571BB2ADFDF2E394" box="[577,634,1210,1233]" name="Japan" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C57D0B2ADFF15E3B5" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C55F1B2C0FEEDE3B5" author="Barney JN & Tharayil N & Ditommaso A & Bhowmik PC" box="[171,357,1239,1264]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="887 - 905" refId="ref5975" refString="Barney JN, Tharayil N, Ditommaso A, Bhowmik PC (2006) The biology of invasive alien plants in Canada. 5. Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc. [= Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr.]. Can J Plant Sci 86: 887 - 905" type="journal article" year="2006">Barney et al. 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<collectingMunicipality id="6BEBDF16030A2C4C5421B2CFFE2BE3B5" box="[379,419,1240,1264]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">The</collectingMunicipality>
|
||
range of habitats and soil
|
||
<typeStatus id="548BFBCE030A2C4C57E3B2C0FD65E3AA" box="[697,749,1239,1263]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">types</typeStatus>
|
||
it is known to grow in is extremely diverse. It can be found across 35 latitudinal degrees and grows from sea level to
|
||
<elevation id="001DA25F030A2C4C5735B305FF35E20D" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.5" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="m" value="3500.0">
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C5735B305FD4AE26C" box="[623,706,1298,1322]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.5" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="m" value="3500.0">3,500 m</quantity>
|
||
above sea level
|
||
</elevation>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5593B327FEB7E20D" author="Bailey JP" box="[201,319,1328,1352]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It often grows in riparian and ruderal areas, areas experiencing human disturbances, forest margins, urban landscapes, and gardens (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C542AB37DFDA9E2C7" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[368,545,1386,1410]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5774B37DFD77E2C7" author="Clements DR & Larsen T & Grenz J" box="[558,767,1386,1410]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="60 - 70" refId="ref6222" refString="Clements DR, Larsen T, Grenz J (2016) Knotweed management strategies in North America with the advent of widespread hybrid bohemian knotweed, regional differences, and the potential for biocontrol via the psyllid Aphalara itadori Shinji. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 9: 60 - 70" type="journal article" year="2016">Clements et al. 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5536B39FFEBCE2E5" author="Mandak B & Pysek P & Bimova K" box="[108,308,1415,1440]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="15 - 64" refId="ref7079" refString="Mandak B, Pysek P, Bimova K (2004) History of the invasion and distribution of Reynoutria taxa in the Czech Republic: a hybrid spreading faster than its parents. Preslia 76: 15 - 64" type="journal article" year="2004">Mandák et al. 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It grows on a variety of terrains, including sandy soils, swamps, rocky banks, and alluvial floodplains (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5529B3D5FEA4E29F" author="Barney JN & Tharayil N & Ditommaso A & Bhowmik PC" box="[115,300,1474,1498]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="887 - 905" refId="ref5975" refString="Barney JN, Tharayil N, Ditommaso A, Bhowmik PC (2006) The biology of invasive alien plants in Canada. 5. Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc. [= Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr.]. Can J Plant Sci 86: 887 - 905" type="journal article" year="2006">Barney et al. 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Knotweeds have highly plastic salt-tolerance traits and are now known to grow in salt marsh habitats in the eastern United States (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C540CB3EAFDAEE150" author="Richards CL & Walls RL & Bailey JP & Parameswaran R & George T & Pigliucci M" box="[342,550,1533,1557]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="931 - 942" refId="ref7463" refString="Richards CL, Walls RL, Bailey JP, Parameswaran R, George T, Pigliucci M (2008) Plasticity in salt tolerance traits allows for invasion of novel habitat by Japanese knotweed s. l. (Fallopia japonica and F. × bohemica, Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 95: 931 - 942" type="journal article" year="2008">Richards et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Furthermore, knotweeds are known to grow in soils with high concentrations of metal pollutants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C55BAB02FFE27E115" author="Michalet S & Rouifed S & Pellassa-Simon T & Fusade-Boyer M & Meiffren G & Nazaret S & Piola F" box="[224,431,1591,1616]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="20897 - 20907" refId="ref7169" refString="Michalet S, Rouifed S, Pellassa-Simon T, Fusade-Boyer M, Meiffren G, Nazaret S, Piola F (2017) Tolerance of Japanese knotweed s. l. to soil artificial polymetallic pollution: early metabolic responses and performance during vegetative multiplication. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24: 20897 - 20907" type="journal article" year="2017">Michalet et al. 2017</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Indeed, knotweed growth rates are greater in soils with average concentrations of metallic pollutants (
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C55F1B064FF56E1CF" box="[171,222,1650,1675]" metricMagnitude="-6" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="2.0" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="mg" value="2.0">2 mg</quantity>
|
||
kg
|
||
<superScript id="7C45E824030A2C4C55A1B079FE98E13A" attach="left" box="[251,272,1646,1663]" fontSize="7" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C55A1B079FE8FE13B" box="[251,263,1646,1662]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">−</emphasis>
|
||
1
|
||
</superScript>
|
||
Cd,
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C5465B064FE01E1CF" box="[319,393,1650,1675]" metricMagnitude="-4" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.5" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="mg" value="150.0">150 mg</quantity>
|
||
kg
|
||
<superScript id="7C45E824030A2C4C54FDB079FE33E13A" attach="left" box="[423,443,1646,1663]" fontSize="7" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C54FDB079FE3BE13B" box="[423,435,1646,1662]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">−</emphasis>
|
||
1
|
||
</superScript>
|
||
Cr,
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C54BCB064FDB8E1CF" box="[486,560,1650,1675]" metricMagnitude="-4" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.0" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="mg" value="100.0">100 mg</quantity>
|
||
kg
|
||
<superScript id="7C45E824030A2C4C5714B079FDEAE13A" attach="left" box="[590,610,1646,1663]" fontSize="7" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5714B079FDD2E13B" box="[590,602,1646,1662]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">−</emphasis>
|
||
1
|
||
</superScript>
|
||
Pb, and
|
||
<quantity id="4CC8E889030A2C4C57E0B064FC8CE1CF" box="[698,772,1650,1675]" metricMagnitude="-4" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="3.0" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" unit="mg" value="300.0">300 mg</quantity>
|
||
kg
|
||
<superScript id="7C45E824030A2C4C55DEB09BFF10E1D9" attach="left" box="[132,152,1676,1692]" fontSize="7" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C55DEB09BFF18E1D9" box="[132,144,1676,1692]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">−</emphasis>
|
||
1
|
||
</superScript>
|
||
Zn) compared with unpolluted soil (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5779B087FD7EE1ED" author="Michalet S & Rouifed S & Pellassa-Simon T & Fusade-Boyer M & Meiffren G & Nazaret S & Piola F" box="[547,758,1679,1704]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="20897 - 20907" refId="ref7169" refString="Michalet S, Rouifed S, Pellassa-Simon T, Fusade-Boyer M, Meiffren G, Nazaret S, Piola F (2017) Tolerance of Japanese knotweed s. l. to soil artificial polymetallic pollution: early metabolic responses and performance during vegetative multiplication. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24: 20897 - 20907" type="journal article" year="2017">Michalet et al. 2017</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5536B0BBFECAE181" box="[108,322,1708,1732]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B0BBFF35E181" box="[108,189,1708,1732]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C55B8B0BBFECAE181" box="[226,322,1708,1732]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
accumulated the greatest concentration of metals relative to either
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C543DB0DDFE5FE1A4" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[359,471,1738,1761]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C543DB0DDFE5FE1A4" box="[359,471,1738,1761]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C54A7B0DDFF57E045" authority="(Michalet et al. 2017)" baseAuthorityName="Michalet" baseAuthorityYear="2017" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C54A7B0DDFD12E1A4" box="[509,666,1737,1761]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C57F3B0DCFF5DE045" author="Michalet S & Rouifed S & Pellassa-Simon T & Fusade-Boyer M & Meiffren G & Nazaret S & Piola F" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="20897 - 20907" refId="ref7169" refString="Michalet S, Rouifed S, Pellassa-Simon T, Fusade-Boyer M, Meiffren G, Nazaret S, Piola F (2017) Tolerance of Japanese knotweed s. l. to soil artificial polymetallic pollution: early metabolic responses and performance during vegetative multiplication. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24: 20897 - 20907" type="journal article" year="2017">Michalet et al. 2017</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5536B13DFF6CE004" blockId="3.[108,228,1834,1857]" box="[108,228,1834,1857]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<heading id="D0C7F200030A2C4C5536B13DFF6CE004" box="[108,228,1834,1857]" fontSize="10" level="2" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" reason="2">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B13DFF6CE004" bold="true" box="[108,228,1834,1857]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Allelopathy</emphasis>
|
||
</heading>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5536B141FA4CE63F" blockId="3.[108,772,1878,1991]" lastBlockId="3.[812,1476,177,554]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5536B141FE93E02B" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[108,283,1878,1902]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5536B141FE93E02B" box="[108,283,1878,1902]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
contains chemicals with the potential to cause allelopathic effects; these chemicals include resveratrol, resveratroloside, piceid, piceatannol glucoside, polydatin, emodin, and catechins (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C55F4B1B8FEBAE082" author="Serniak L" box="[174,306,1967,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="97 - 101" refId="ref7554" refString="Serniak L (2016) Comparison of the allelopathic effects and uptake of Fallopia japonica phytochemicals by Raphanus sativus. Weed Res 56: 97 - 101" type="journal article" year="2016">Serniak 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5467B1B9FE74E082" author="Vastano BC & Chen Y & Zhu N & Ho CT & Zhou Z & Rosen RT" box="[317,508,1966,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="253 - 256" refId="ref7766" refString="Vastano BC, Chen Y, Zhu N, Ho CT, Zhou Z, Rosen RT (2000) Isolation and identification of stilbenes in two varieties of Polygonum cuspidatum. J Agric Food Chem 48: 253 - 256" type="journal article" year="2000">Vastano et al. 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C574AB1B9FD54E083" box="[528,732,1966,1990]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C574AB1B9FDE9E083" box="[528,609,1966,1990]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5727B1B9FD54E083" box="[637,732,1966,1990]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has also been found to have allelopathic effects on nearby plants, particularly affecting seed germination and seedling growth (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5035B6D8FC5EE641" author="Siemens TJ & Blossey B" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="776 - 783" refId="ref7581" refString="Siemens TJ, Blossey B (2007) An evaluation of mechanisms preventing growth and survival of two native species in invasive Bohemian knotweed (Fallopia × bohemica, Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 94: 776 - 783" type="journal article" year="2007">Siemens and Blossey 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). One study found that mechanical control of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C50C7B6FBFC04E665" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C50C7B6FBFA39E646" box="[1437,1457,236,259]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5676B71FFC04E665" box="[812,908,264,288]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
via stem cutting causes an overall reduction in production of allelochemicals (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5141B730FB5FE67A" author="Murrell C & Gerber E & Krebs C & Parepa M & Schaffner U & Bossdorf O" box="[1051,1239,294,319]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="38 - 43" refId="ref7293" refString="Murrell C, Gerber E, Krebs C, Parepa M, Schaffner U, Bossdorf O (2011) Invasive knotweed affects native plants through allelopathy. Am J Bot 98: 38 - 43" type="journal article" year="2011">Murrell et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C51B1B731FA4CE67B" box="[1259,1476,294,318]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51B1B731FA4CE67B" box="[1259,1476,294,318]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
also has allelopathic capabilities and has been shown to have the greatest phytotoxic effects on other plants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5183B775FA3EE63F" author="Moravcova L & Pysek P & Jarosik V & Zakravsky P" box="[1241,1462,353,378]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="31 - 47" refId="ref7253" refString="Moravcova L, Pysek P, Jarosik V, Zakravsky P (2011) Potential phytotoxic and shading effects of invasive Fallopia (Polygonaceae) taxa on the germination of native dominant species. NeoBiota 9: 31 - 47" type="journal article" year="2011">Moravcová et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5616B768FBC2E56F" blockId="3.[812,1476,177,554]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
The highest level of phenolic compounds is found in the rhizomes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5627B78BFBEAE6F1" author="Vaher M & Koel M" box="[893,1122,412,436]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="225 - 230" refId="ref7737" refString="Vaher M, Koel M (2003) Separation of polyphenolic compounds extracted from plant matrices using capillary electrophoresis. J. Chromatogr A 990: 225 - 230" type="journal article" year="2003">Vaher and Koel 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). However, the decomposition of knotweed litter from each of the taxa also has phytotoxic effects on other plants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5689B7C0FB3BE6AA" author="Moravcova L & Pysek P & Jarosik V & Zakravsky P" box="[979,1203,470,495]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="31 - 47" refId="ref7253" refString="Moravcova L, Pysek P, Jarosik V, Zakravsky P (2011) Potential phytotoxic and shading effects of invasive Fallopia (Polygonaceae) taxa on the germination of native dominant species. NeoBiota 9: 31 - 47" type="journal article" year="2011">Moravcová et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). These allelopathic chemicals are significant, because they greatly increase knotweed’ s invasive and competitive ability.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5676B44CFC64E534" blockId="3.[812,1004,603,625]" box="[812,1004,603,625]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5676B44CFC64E534" bold="true" box="[812,1004,603,625]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Genetic Diversity</emphasis>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5676B490FAF9E37C" blockId="3.[812,1477,646,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
Knotweed has higher levels of genetic diversity in its native range than its invasive range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5179B4B3FB14E5F9" author="Bailey JP" box="[1059,1180,676,700]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). There are also many more subspecies and varieties of knotweed in the native range compared with the adventive range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5117B4C8FB42E5B2" author="Bailey JP" box="[1101,1226,735,759]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5187B4C9FA3EE5B2" author="Inamura A & Ohashi Y & Sato E & Yoda Y & Masuzawa T & Ito M & Yoshinaga K" box="[1245,1462,734,759]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="419 - 426" refId="ref6852" refString="Inamura A, Ohashi Y, Sato E, Yoda Y, Masuzawa T, Ito M, Yoshinaga K (2000) Intraspecific sequence variation of chloroplast DNA reflecting variety and geographical distribution of Polygonum cuspidatum (Polygonaceae) in Japan. J Plant Res 113: 419 - 426" type="journal article" year="2000">Inamura et al. 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Hybridization of knotweed in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C5104B4EBFB1FE456" box="[1118,1175,764,787]" name="Japan" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
is limited, which differs from the knotweed found in Europe and North America, where hybridization is common (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C56B4B520FBECE40A" author="Bailey JP" box="[1006,1124,823,847]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5135B520FABBE40A" author="Grimsby JL & Tsirelson D & Gammon MA & Kesseli R" box="[1135,1331,822,847]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="957 - 964" refId="ref6642" refString="Grimsby JL, Tsirelson D, Gammon MA, Kesseli R (2007) Genetic diversity and clonal vs. sexual reproduction in Fallopia spp. (Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 94: 957 - 964" type="journal article" year="2007">Grimsby et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Clonal invasive species that reproduce asexually typically have lower genetic variation (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C56CEB565FB83E4CF" author="Bailey JP" box="[916,1035,882,906]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), so it would follow that invasive knotweed would have low genetic variability; however, the ability of an invasive to hybridize can increase its invasive success (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5062B5BBFC60E4A4" author="Ellstrand NC & Schierenbeck KA" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="35 - 46" refId="ref6418" refString="Ellstrand NC, Schierenbeck KA (2006) Hybridization as a stimulus for the evolution of invasiveness in plants? Euphytica 148: 35 - 46" type="journal article" year="2006">Ellstrand and Schierenbeck 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Indeed,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5116B5DEFB52E4A5" box="[1100,1242,968,992]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5116B5DEFBE8E4A5" box="[1100,1120,969,992]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5120B5DFFB52E4A5" box="[1146,1242,968,992]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
shows heterosis in that it is more invasive than its parents (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C51FFB5F0FAE9E4BA" author="Parepa M & Fischer M & Krebs C & Bossdorf O" box="[1189,1377,998,1023]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="413 - 420" refId="ref7367" refString="Parepa M, Fischer M, Krebs C, Bossdorf O (2014) Hybridization increases invasive knotweed success. Evol Appl 7: 413 - 420" type="journal article" year="2014">Parepa et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), spreads faster than both parents (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C516EB213FB77E359" author="Mandak B & Pysek P & Bimova K" box="[1076,1279,1028,1052]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="15 - 64" refId="ref7079" refString="Mandak B, Pysek P, Bimova K (2004) History of the invasion and distribution of Reynoutria taxa in the Czech Republic: a hybrid spreading faster than its parents. Preslia 76: 15 - 64" type="journal article" year="2004">Mandák et al. 2004</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), and has a higher regenerative ability than its parents (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C51F9B236FAEBE37C" author="Bimova K & Mandak B & Pysek P" box="[1187,1379,1057,1081]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1 - 11" refId="ref6117" refString="Bimova K, Mandak B, Pysek P (2003) experimental study of vegetative regeneration in four invasive Reynoutria taxa (Polygonaceae). Plant Ecol 166: 1 - 11" type="journal article" year="2003">Bímová et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5616B228FBCEE239" blockId="3.[812,1477,646,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
Knotweed in the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C56ACB228FB28E312" box="[1014,1184,1087,1111]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">United Kingdom</collectingCountry>
|
||
shows interspecific diversity, with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5605B24BFC46E336" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[863,974,1116,1139]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5605B24BFC46E336" box="[863,974,1116,1139]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5680B24BFBE2E336" box="[986,1130,1115,1139]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5680B24BFC66E336" box="[986,1006,1116,1139]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5150B24CFBE2E336" box="[1034,1130,1115,1139]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C51F8B24BFAB4E336" box="[1186,1340,1115,1139]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51F8B24BFAB4E336" box="[1186,1340,1115,1139]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
all clustering separately in diversity analyses and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C51CFB26EFAADE3D5" box="[1173,1317,1144,1168]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51CFB26EFB22E3D5" box="[1173,1194,1145,1168]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C519CB26FFAADE3D5" box="[1222,1317,1144,1168]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
clustering twothirds closer to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C568BB281FBCAE3E8" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[977,1090,1174,1197]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C568BB281FBCAE3E8" box="[977,1090,1174,1197]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
than
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C51D9B281FC13E389" authority="(Hollingsworth et al. 1998)" baseAuthorityName="Hollingsworth" baseAuthorityYear="1998" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51D9B281FAA8E3EB" box="[1155,1312,1174,1198]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C506AB280FC19E389" author="Hollingsworth ML & Hollingsworth PM & Jenkins GI & Bailey JP & Ferris C" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1681 - 1691" refId="ref6764" refString="Hollingsworth ML, Hollingsworth PM, Jenkins GI, Bailey JP, Ferris C (1998) The use of molecular markers to study patterns of genotypic diversity in some invasive alien Fallopia spp. (Polygonaceae). Mol Ecol 7: 1681 - 1691" type="journal article" year="1998">Hollingsworth et al. 1998</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
. This could potentially be due to multiple backcrossing events. It was found that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5175B2C6FB16E3AD" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1071,1182,1233,1256]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5175B2C6FB16E3AD" box="[1071,1182,1233,1256]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5189B2C6FAEDE3AD" box="[1235,1381,1232,1256]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5189B2C6FB6FE3AD" box="[1235,1255,1233,1256]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C505FB2C7FAEDE3AD" box="[1285,1381,1232,1256]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are most genetically similar, whereas
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5119B2F9FB38E240" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1091,1200,1262,1285]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5119B2F9FB38E240" box="[1091,1200,1262,1285]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C51BBB2F9FAF2E243" box="[1249,1402,1262,1286]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51BBB2F9FAF2E243" box="[1249,1402,1262,1286]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are the least similar (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C56ECB31BFBEDE261" author="Holm AK & Elameen A & Oliver BW & Brandsaeter LO & FlOistad IS & Brurberg MB" box="[950,1125,1292,1316]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="755 - 764" refId="ref6810" refString="Holm AK, Elameen A, Oliver BW, Brandsaeter LO, FlOistad IS, Brurberg MB (2018) Low genetic variation of invasive Fallopia spp. in their northernmost European distribution range. Ecol Evol 8: 755 - 764" type="journal article" year="2018">Holm et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It has also been found that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C50C3B31BFC04E205" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C50C3B31BFA25E266" box="[1433,1453,1292,1315]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5676B33FFC04E205" box="[812,908,1320,1344]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
shows higher diversity compared with either parent, which could be explained by spread via sexual reproduction (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5669B373FBB0E239" author="Hollingsworth ML & Hollingsworth PM & Jenkins GI & Bailey JP & Ferris C" box="[819,1080,1380,1404]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1681 - 1691" refId="ref6764" refString="Hollingsworth ML, Hollingsworth PM, Jenkins GI, Bailey JP, Ferris C (1998) The use of molecular markers to study patterns of genotypic diversity in some invasive alien Fallopia spp. (Polygonaceae). Mol Ecol 7: 1681 - 1691" type="journal article" year="1998">Hollingsworth et al. 1998</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5616B396FAD7E2B7" blockId="3.[812,1477,646,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
Low genetic diversity was found for all three of the knotweed taxa across
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C56FDB389FC7FE2F3" box="[935,1015,1438,1462]" name="Norway" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Norway</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C515DB388FB32E2F2" author="Holm AK & Elameen A & Oliver BW & Brandsaeter LO & FlOistad IS & Brurberg MB" box="[1031,1210,1438,1463]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="755 - 764" refId="ref6810" refString="Holm AK, Elameen A, Oliver BW, Brandsaeter LO, FlOistad IS, Brurberg MB (2018) Low genetic variation of invasive Fallopia spp. in their northernmost European distribution range. Ecol Evol 8: 755 - 764" type="journal article" year="2018">Holm et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Due to these low levels of genetic variation, it was concluded that knotweed likely has not reproduced sexually in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C511FB3CEFB1EE2B4" box="[1093,1174,1497,1521]" name="Norway" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Norway</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C51FEB3CDFADAE2B7" author="Holm AK & Elameen A & Oliver BW & Brandsaeter LO & FlOistad IS & Brurberg MB" box="[1188,1362,1497,1522]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="755 - 764" refId="ref6810" refString="Holm AK, Elameen A, Oliver BW, Brandsaeter LO, FlOistad IS, Brurberg MB (2018) Low genetic variation of invasive Fallopia spp. in their northernmost European distribution range. Ecol Evol 8: 755 - 764" type="journal article" year="2018">Holm et al. 2018</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4C5616B3E0FB14E1C1" blockId="3.[812,1477,646,1991]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
Within-species genetic diversity was found to be low across all taxa in a study of knotweeds in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C5120B003FB49E169" box="[1146,1217,1556,1580]" name="Poland" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Poland</collectingCountry>
|
||
and
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C51A2B003FAB9E16E" box="[1272,1329,1556,1579]" name="Japan" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C501AB003FCD5E10F" author="Bzdega K & Janiak A & Ksiazczyk T & Lewandowska A & Gancarek M & Sliwinska E & Tokarska-Guzik B" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="1 - 23" refId="ref6178" refString="Bzdega K, Janiak A, Ksiazczyk T, Lewandowska A, Gancarek M, Sliwinska E, Tokarska-Guzik B (2016) A survey of genetic variation and genome evolution within the invasive Fallopia complex. PLoS ONE 11: 1 - 23" type="journal article" year="2016">Bzdega et al. 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C56FBB026FB86E10D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[929,1038,1585,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C56FBB026FB86E10D" box="[929,1038,1585,1608]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5164B026FB5FE10D" box="[1086,1239,1584,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5164B026FB5FE10D" box="[1086,1239,1584,1608]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
showing the lowest levels of polymorphism.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5157B059FB34E123" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1037,1212,1614,1638]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5157B059FB34E123" box="[1037,1212,1614,1638]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
populations in this study were not found to be a single clone.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030A2C4B5616B09FFE63E7A2" blockId="3.[812,1477,646,1991]" lastBlockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" lastPageId="4" lastPageNumber="621" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5616B09FFC73E1E5" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[844,1019,1672,1696]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5616B09FFC73E1E5" box="[844,1019,1672,1696]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
spreads exclusively by vegetative reproduction, and the clones are monotypic in the western
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C5061B0B0FA4CE1FA" box="[1339,1476,1703,1727]" name="United States of America" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5669B0D3FC60E199" author="Gaskin JF & Schwarzlander M & Grevstad FS & Haverhals MA & Bourchier RS & Miller TW" box="[819,1000,1732,1756]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="2127 - 2136" refId="ref6514" refString="Gaskin JF, Schwarzlander M, Grevstad FS, Haverhals MA, Bourchier RS, Miller TW (2014) Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America. Biol Invasions 16: 2127 - 2136" type="journal article" year="2014">Gaskin et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5173B0D3FB66E199" author="Gaskin JF & Schwarzlander M & Grevstad FS & Haverhals MA & Bourchier RS & Miller TW" box="[1065,1262,1732,1756]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="2127 - 2136" refId="ref6514" refString="Gaskin JF, Schwarzlander M, Grevstad FS, Haverhals MA, Bourchier RS, Miller TW (2014) Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America. Biol Invasions 16: 2127 - 2136" type="journal article" year="2014">Gaskin et al. (2014)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
study used amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) to compare
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C500EB0F6FA4CE1BD" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1364,1476,1761,1784]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C500EB0F6FA4CE1BD" box="[1364,1476,1761,1784]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
with multiple samples of the clone that invaded the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C5024B0E8FC03E071" name="United Kingdom" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">United Kingdom</collectingCountry>
|
||
and found them to be genetically identical.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C5029B10CFC25E015" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C5029B10CFC25E015" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">Fallopia sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was also found to spread primarily by vegetative means and was mostly monotypic in the western
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030A2C4C5060B140FA4CE02A" box="[1338,1476,1879,1903]" name="United States of America" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030A2C4C5669B163FC7CE0C9" author="Gaskin JF & Schwarzlander M & Grevstad FS & Haverhals MA & Bourchier RS & Miller TW" box="[819,1012,1908,1932]" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" pagination="2127 - 2136" refId="ref6514" refString="Gaskin JF, Schwarzlander M, Grevstad FS, Haverhals MA, Bourchier RS, Miller TW (2014) Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America. Biol Invasions 16: 2127 - 2136" type="journal article" year="2014">Gaskin et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). However,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030A2C4C512DB163FA85E0CE" box="[1143,1293,1907,1931]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="3" pageNumber="620" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C512DB163FB03E0CE" box="[1143,1163,1908,1931]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030A2C4C51F4B164FA85E0CE" box="[1198,1293,1907,1931]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="620">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
differed from its parents, in that it was found to spread by both asexual and sexual mechanisms, had the lowest number of monotypic populations, the highest proportion of loci that are polymorphic, and the highest genetic diversity (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B547EB6D8FE56E7A2" author="Gaskin JF & Schwarzlander M & Grevstad FS & Haverhals MA & Bourchier RS & Miller TW" box="[292,478,206,231]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="2127 - 2136" refId="ref6514" refString="Gaskin JF, Schwarzlander M, Grevstad FS, Haverhals MA, Bourchier RS, Miller TW (2014) Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America. Biol Invasions 16: 2127 - 2136" type="journal article" year="2014">Gaskin et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB6FBFF4CE697" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
A study in Massachusetts that used simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers also found the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030D2C4B54F8B71EFE4EE665" box="[418,454,265,288]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">UK</collectingCountry>
|
||
clone of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B577EB71EFD1CE665" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[548,660,265,288]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B577EB71EFD1CE665" box="[548,660,265,288]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
in all three of the populations surveyed (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B54F0B730FDF7E67A" author="Grimsby JL & Tsirelson D & Gammon MA & Kesseli R" box="[426,639,294,319]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="957 - 964" refId="ref6642" refString="Grimsby JL, Tsirelson D, Gammon MA, Kesseli R (2007) Genetic diversity and clonal vs. sexual reproduction in Fallopia spp. (Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 94: 957 - 964" type="journal article" year="2007">Grimsby et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This study found 26 genotypes from 66 samples across three distinct
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B552AB776FF6EE63D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[112,230,353,376]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B552AB776FF6EE63D" box="[112,230,353,376]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
populations. They also found evidence for sexual spread of knotweed in Massachusetts, as most knotweed patches were composed of unique genets that were not found in other patches.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB7C0FE26E5DA" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
A transcontinental study of knotweed analyzed 92 locations across the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030D2C4B5582B7E3FED5E549" box="[216,349,500,524]" name="United States of America" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">United States</collectingCountry>
|
||
and, using SSR markers, identified 36 genotypes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B55E5B405FE45E56F" author="Grimsby JL & Kesseli R" box="[191,461,530,554]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="1943 - 1946" refId="ref6612" refString="Grimsby JL, Kesseli R (2009) Genetic composition of invasive Japanese knotweed s. l. in the United States. Biol Invasions 12: 1943 - 1946" type="journal article" year="2009">Grimsby and Kesseli 2009</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B54B9B407FD3BE56D" box="[483,691,528,552]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B54B9B407FDBCE56D" box="[483,564,528,552]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Fallopia</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5709B407FD3BE56D" box="[595,691,528,552]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
had the most diversity, as it was composed of 26 genotypes, while
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B552AB45BFF63E526" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[112,235,588,611]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B552AB45BFF63E526" box="[112,235,588,611]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
samples were made up of 8 genotypes, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B552AB47EFE82E5C5" box="[112,266,616,640]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B552AB47EFE82E5C5" box="[112,266,616,640]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
had only 2 genotypes. The
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030D2C4B5746B47EFDB7E5C5" box="[540,575,617,640]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">UK</collectingCountry>
|
||
clone of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B57C0B47EFC80E5C5" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[666,776,617,640]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B57C0B47EFC80E5C5" box="[666,776,617,640]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was also detected in this study.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB4B3FDF2E477" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
Another study used random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis to study the genetic diversity of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B577EB4D6FD1EE59D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[548,662,705,728]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B577EB4D6FD1EE59D" box="[548,662,705,728]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
along two creeks in
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49F48B8E030D2C4B5597B4C8FEA5E5B2" box="[205,301,735,759]" country="United States of America" name="Kentucky" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Kentucky</collectingRegion>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5463B4C8FE79E5B2" author="Wymer CL & Gardner J & Steinberger Z & Peyton DK" box="[313,497,734,759]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="89 - 95" refId="ref7891" refString="Wymer CL, Gardner J, Steinberger Z, Peyton DK (2007) Polygonum cuspidatum (Polygonaceae) genetic diversity in a small region of eastern Kentucky. J Ky Acad Sci 68: 89 - 95" type="journal article" year="2007">Wymer et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The authors found no evidence of asexual spread and concluded that the genetic diversity that did exist resulted from multiple introductions.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB520FE3EE239" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
Populations of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5472B520FE1EE408" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[296,406,822,846]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5472B520FE1EE408" box="[296,406,822,846]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5492B520FDDEE40B" box="[456,598,822,846]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5492B520FE54E40B" box="[456,476,823,846]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B54ADB521FDDEE40B" box="[503,598,822,846]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
have been shown to have a large amount of epigenetic diversity. Epigenetic diversity occurs through processes such as DNA methylation or histone modification instead of DNA base pair changes. One study used AFLP genetic diversity markers to measure genetic diversity, which were then compared with epigenetic diversity levels found using methylation-sensitive AFLP epigenetic diversity markers that could identify methylated cytosine (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B54B4B213FD4FE359" author="Richards CL & Schrey AW & Pigliucci M" box="[494,711,1028,1052]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="1016 - 1025" refId="ref7521" refString="Richards CL, Schrey AW, Pigliucci M (2012) Invasion of diverse habitats by few Japanese knotweed genotypes is correlated with epigenetic differentiation. Ecol Lett 15: 1016 - 1025" type="journal article" year="2012">Richards et al. 2012</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The authors found that a single clone of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5483B236FDCFE37D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[473,583,1057,1080]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5483B236FDCFE37D" box="[473,583,1057,1080]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
contained 129 epigenotypes, even though it was only composed of one genotype and had no genetic variation (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5436B24BFDA7E331" author="Richards CL & Schrey AW & Pigliucci M" box="[364,559,1116,1140]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="1016 - 1025" refId="ref7521" refString="Richards CL, Schrey AW, Pigliucci M (2012) Invasion of diverse habitats by few Japanese knotweed genotypes is correlated with epigenetic differentiation. Ecol Lett 15: 1016 - 1025" type="journal article" year="2012">Richards et al. 2012</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This study also analyzed
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B55F1B26EFEB4E3D4" box="[171,316,1145,1169]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B55F1B26EFF37E3D5" box="[171,191,1145,1168]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5586B26EFEB4E3D4" box="[220,316,1145,1169]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and found 85 epigenotypes, but only 7 genotypes, across 155 individuals. Both
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B548FB280FDCBE3EB" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[469,579,1175,1198]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B548FB280FDCBE3EB" box="[469,579,1175,1198]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B572DB280FC80E3EB" box="[631,776,1174,1198]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B572DB280FD04E3EB" box="[631,652,1175,1198]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B57F2B281FC80E3EB" box="[680,776,1174,1198]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
showed higher levels of epigenetic variation than genetic variation, with the epigenetic variation for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5496B2C6FDEBE3AD" box="[460,611,1232,1256]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5496B2C6FE69E3AD" box="[460,481,1233,1256]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B575EB2C7FDEBE3AD" box="[516,611,1232,1256]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
being 10 times higher than its genetic variation. This is important, because epigenetic variation is one explanation for the phenotypic diversity and successful establishment of clonally spread
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5776B33EFD14E205" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[556,668,1321,1344]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5776B33EFD14E205" box="[556,668,1321,1344]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
in diverse environments with invasive populations that have low genetic variation. (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5584B373FE20E239" author="Banerjee AK & Guo W & Huang Y" box="[222,424,1380,1404]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="77 - 103" refId="ref5908" refString="Banerjee AK, Guo W, Huang Y (2019) Genetic and epigenetic regulation of phenotypic variation in invasive plants - linking research trends towards a unified framework. NeoBiota 103: 77 - 103" type="journal article" year="2019">Banerjee et al. 2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB396FDCFE1F8" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
In a study of central European
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B549DB396FDBDE2DD" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[455,565,1409,1432]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B549DB396FDBDE2DD" box="[455,565,1409,1432]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, a single genotype of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B552AB388FF54E2F3" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[112,220,1439,1462]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B552AB388FF54E2F3" box="[112,220,1439,1462]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
contained 27 different epigenotypes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B570AB388FD72E2F2" author="Zhang Y & Parepa M & Fischer M & Bossdorf O" box="[592,762,1438,1463]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" refId="ref7929" refString="Zhang Y, Parepa M, Fischer M, Bossdorf O (2016) Epigenetics of colonizing species? A study of Japanese knotweed in Central Europe. Pages 328 - 340 in Barrett SCH, Colautti R, Dlugosch KM, Rieseberg LH, eds. Invasion Genetics: The Baker and Stebbins Legacy. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley" type="book" year="2016">Zhang et al. 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The authors also found that the epigenetic variation was a full order of magnitude higher than the genetic variation. Their study was able to correlate epigenetic diversity with both phenotypic diversity and the climate from which the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B54E8B003FDA8E16E" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[434,544,1556,1579]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B54E8B003FDA8E16E" box="[434,544,1556,1579]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
population originated. Notably,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5594B026FEB6E10D" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[206,318,1585,1608]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5594B026FEB6E10D" box="[206,318,1585,1608]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
varied in some key phenotypic traits associated with invasiveness, such as specific leaf area. They concluded this correlation could potentially lead to habitat adaptation, which could explain how a single clone of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5489B09EFDC9E1E5" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[467,577,1673,1696]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5489B09EFDC9E1E5" box="[467,577,1673,1696]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was able to become such a strong invader across much of Europe.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B55CAB0D3FF4DE082" blockId="4.[112,777,177,1991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
It is important that a genetic diversity study be conducted in
|
||
<collectingRegion id="49F48B8E030D2C4B552AB0F5FF56E1BF" box="[112,222,1762,1786]" country="United States of America" name="Minnesota" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Minnesota</collectingRegion>
|
||
, because it has been shown that each congener can react differently to different control methods (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B575EB0E8FD36E052" author="Bimova K & Mandak B & Pysek P" box="[516,702,1790,1815]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" refId="ref6056" refString="Bimova K, Mandak B, Pysek P (2001) Experimental control of Reynoutria congeners: a comparative study of a hybrid and its parents. Pages 283 - 290 in Brundu G, Brock J, Camarda I, Child L, Wade M, eds. Plant Invasions: Species Ecology and Ecosystem Management. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2001">Bímová et al. 2001</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). It has also been shown that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5414B10BFE35E076" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[334,445,1820,1843]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5414B10BFE35E076" box="[334,445,1820,1843]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5490B10BFDEDE076" box="[458,613,1819,1843]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5490B10BFDEDE076" box="[458,613,1819,1843]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B57C5B10BFF29E015" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B57C5B10BFD3BE076" box="[671,691,1820,1843]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B578BB10CFF29E015" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
all react differently to biological control with the psyllid
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B552AB141FEDEE02A" authority="Shinji" authorityName="Shinji" box="[112,342,1878,1903]" class="Insecta" family="Aphalaridae" genus="Aphalara" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="itadori">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B552AB141FE9EE02B" box="[112,278,1878,1902]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Aphalara itadori</emphasis>
|
||
Shinji
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B543BB140FDADE02A" author="Grevstad F & Shaw R & Bourchier R & Sanguankeo P & Cortat G & Reardon RC" box="[353,549,1878,1903]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="53 - 62" refId="ref6560" refString="Grevstad F, Shaw R, Bourchier R, Sanguankeo P, Cortat G, Reardon RC (2013) Efficacy and host specificity compared between two populations of the psyllid Aphalara itadori, candidates for biological control of invasive knotweeds in North America. Biol Control 65: 53 - 62" type="journal article" year="2013">Grevstad et al. 2013</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Thus, it is imperative that land managers and homeowners know exactly which taxa is invading an area so that they can choose the most effective control method.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B566AB6A6FBB9E78D" blockId="4.[816,1073,177,200]" box="[816,1073,177,200]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
<heading id="D0C7F200030D2C4B566AB6A6FBB9E78D" box="[816,1073,177,200]" fontSize="10" level="2" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" reason="2">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B566AB6A6FBB9E78D" bold="true" box="[816,1073,177,200]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Ploidy and Cytogenetics</emphasis>
|
||
</heading>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B566AB6C9FA4FE686" blockId="4.[816,1481,221,1448]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
Knotweed has a base chromosome number of
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5057B6CAFA91E7B1" box="[1293,1305,221,244]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">x</emphasis>
|
||
= 11 (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5001B6C9FC17E656" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030D2C4B568DB6EDFB9AE654" box="[983,1042,250,273]" name="Japan" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Japan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, high-altitude dwarf
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B51AAB6ECFAEAE657" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1264,1378,251,274]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B51AAB6ECFAEAE657" box="[1264,1378,251,274]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has been found as a tetraploid (2
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B517BB70FFBA6E66A" box="[1057,1070,280,303]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">n</emphasis>
|
||
= 4
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B510CB70FFBEAE66A" box="[1110,1122,280,303]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">x</emphasis>
|
||
= 44), and tall lowland
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5002B70FFA40E66A" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1368,1480,280,303]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5002B70FFA40E66A" box="[1368,1480,280,303]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has been found as tetraploid and octoploid (2
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5053B722FA9EE609" box="[1289,1302,309,332]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">n</emphasis>
|
||
= 8
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5064B722FAC2E609" box="[1342,1354,309,332]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">x</emphasis>
|
||
= 88;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B50D1B721FCE9E62E" author="Bailey JP" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Limited sampling found
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5137B744FB53E62F" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1133,1243,339,362]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5137B744FB53E62F" box="[1133,1243,339,362]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
from
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F32705FC030D2C4B5043B744FADEE62E" box="[1305,1366,339,363]" name="China" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">China</collectingCountry>
|
||
to be octoploid and decaploid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5153B767FB09E6CD" author="Bailey JP" box="[1033,1153,368,392]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B51CDB778FAF9E6C2" box="[1175,1393,367,391]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B51CDB778FAF9E6C2" box="[1175,1393,367,391]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Fallopia sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is tetraploid in its native range (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5117B799FB42E6E3" author="Bailey JP" box="[1101,1226,398,422]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" refId="ref5705" refString="Bailey JP (2003) Japanese knotweed s. l. at home and abroad. Pages 183 - 196 in Child L, Brock J, Brundu G, Prach K, Pysek P, Wade P, Williamson M, eds. Plant Invasions: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions. Leiden: Backhuys" type="book" year="2003">Bailey 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) with the exception of Korean
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56D8B7BCFB95E687" box="[898,1053,426,450]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56D8B7BCFB95E687" box="[898,1053,426,450]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
being dodecaploid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B51B4B7BCFA31E686" author="Kim JY & Park C" box="[1262,1465,427,451]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="34 - 48" refId="ref6979" refString="Kim JY, Park C (2000) Morphological and chromosomal variation in Fallopia section Reynoutria (Polygonaceae) in Korea. Brittonia 52: 34 - 48" type="journal article" year="2000">Kim and Park 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B560AB7DFFBAAE405" blockId="4.[816,1481,221,1448]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
In the adventive range,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5163B7DFFAA3E69A" authority="var. japonica" box="[1081,1323,456,479]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="variety" species="japonica" variety="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5163B7DFFB2EE69A" box="[1081,1190,456,479]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
var.
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B518CB7DFFAA3E69A" box="[1238,1323,456,479]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has been found to be octaploid, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B515CB7F2FBFFE6B9" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[1030,1143,485,508]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B515CB7F2FBFFE6B9" box="[1030,1143,485,508]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
‘Compacta’ has been found as a tetraploid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B56F9B414FBF8E55E" author="Mandak B & Pysek P & Lysak M & Suda J & Krahulcova A & Bimova K" box="[931,1136,514,539]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="265 - 272" refId="ref7118" refString="Mandak B, Pysek P, Lysak M, Suda J, Krahulcova A, Bimova K (2003) Variation in DNA-ploidy levels of Reynoutria taxa in the Czech Republic. Ann Bot 92: 265 - 272" type="journal article" year="2003">Mandák et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). There have been no reports of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B566AB437FC28E572" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[816,928,544,567]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B566AB437FC28E572" box="[816,928,544,567]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
as a diploid.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5176B408FA8EE572" box="[1068,1286,543,567]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5176B408FA8EE572" box="[1068,1286,543,567]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Fallopia sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has been found as a mixture of tetraploid, hexaploid, and octoploid, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5004B42AFCE9E537" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5004B42AFAFAE511" box="[1374,1394,573,596]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B50CAB42BFCE9E537" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is primarily hexaploid with evidence for tetraploids and octoploids as well (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5690B46FFB1BE5D5" author="Mandak B & Pysek P & Lysak M & Suda J & Krahulcova A & Bimova K" box="[970,1171,632,656]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="265 - 272" refId="ref7118" refString="Mandak B, Pysek P, Lysak M, Suda J, Krahulcova A, Bimova K (2003) Variation in DNA-ploidy levels of Reynoutria taxa in the Czech Republic. Ann Bot 92: 265 - 272" type="journal article" year="2003">Mandák et al. 2003</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The hybrid created between
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B566AB482FC42E5E9" box="[816,970,660,684]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B566AB482FC42E5E9" box="[816,970,660,684]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and Compacta has also been found as a tetraploid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B566DB4A4FB98E58E" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" box="[823,1040,691,715]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Even though
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B51FDB4A4FABCE58F" box="[1191,1332,690,714]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B51FDB4A4FB33E58F" box="[1191,1211,691,714]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B518EB4A5FABCE58F" box="[1236,1332,690,714]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
can be crossed with itself or either parent, resulting in a range of euploid and aneuploid progeny, it is primarily found in nature in a euploid state as a tetraploid, hexaploid, octoploid, or infrequently a decaploid (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B50D3B51CFB9DE405" author="Bailey JP & Wisskirchen R" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="173 - 199" refId="ref5878" refString="Bailey JP, Wisskirchen R (2006) The distribution and origins of Fallopia × bohemica (Polygonaceae) in Europe. Nord J Bot 24: 173 - 199" type="journal article" year="2006">Bailey and Wisskirchen 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B560AB551FC45E39C" blockId="4.[816,1481,221,1448]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
Tetraploid knotweed shows normal bivalent pairing in meiosis and a low level of chiasma (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5119B574FA96E43E" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" box="[1091,1310,867,891]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Tetraploid and octoploid
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56CFB597FBAAE4D2" box="[917,1058,895,919]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56CFB597FC21E4D2" box="[917,937,896,919]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5698B568FBAAE4D2" box="[962,1058,895,919]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
have a more normal meiosis than the hexaploid
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B562CB58AFB73E4F3" authority="(Bailey and Stace 1992)" baseAuthorityName="Bailey and Stace" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[886,1275,924,950]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B562CB58AFC02E4F1" box="[886,906,925,948]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56FCB58BFB8DE4F1" box="[934,1029,924,948]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5149B589FB79E4F3" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" box="[1043,1265,926,950]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
. The hexaploid
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B50C4B58AFC07E497" baseAuthorityName="Bailey and Stace" baseAuthorityYear="1992" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B50C4B58AFA3AE4F1" box="[1438,1458,925,948]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B566AB5ADFC07E497" box="[816,911,954,978]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
shows irregular meiosis that consists of numerous univalents and multivalents not surpassing quadrivalents (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5006B5CFFC12E348" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The DNA 2C-values per 2x genome of the taxa ranged from 1.23 to 1.62 pg, with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5160B204FB5CE36F" box="[1082,1236,1042,1066]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5160B204FB5CE36F" box="[1082,1236,1042,1066]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
at 1.33 pg, Compacta at 1.29 pg,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56DDB227FC7FE302" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[903,1015,1072,1095]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56DDB227FC7FE302" box="[903,1015,1072,1095]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
ranging from 1.30 to 1.62 pg, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5005B227FCE9E321" baseAuthorityName="Bailey and Stace" baseAuthorityYear="1992" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" isHybrid="true" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="bohemica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5005B227FAFBE302" box="[1375,1395,1072,1095]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F.</emphasis>
|
||
×
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B50CBB238FCE9E321" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">bohemica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
ranging from 1.23 to 1.59 pg (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B51F8B259FA0DE323" author="Bailey JP & Stace CA" box="[1186,1413,1102,1126]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="29 - 52" refId="ref5840" refString="Bailey JP, Stace CA (1992) Chromosome number, morphology, pairing, and DNA values of species and hybrids in the genus Fallopia (Polygonaceae). Plant Syst Evol 180: 29 - 52" type="journal article" year="1992">Bailey and Stace 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This paper also posits that the tetraploids are much older than the octoploids, because the tetra-haploid genome of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B5044B29FFC0DE3F9" authority="var. japonica" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="variety" species="japonica" variety="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B5044B29FFA1CE3DA" box="[1310,1428,1160,1183]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
var.
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B566AB2B2FC0DE3F9" box="[816,901,1189,1212]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
can
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56E8B2B1FBCDE3FB" box="[946,1093,1190,1214]" form="bivalents" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" rank="form">form bivalents</taxonomicName>
|
||
, yet the di-haploid genome of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B502AB2B2FCF2E39F" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="sachalinensis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B502AB2B2FCF2E39F" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. sachalinensis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
cannot.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B8F456C030D2C4B560AB2F7FA40E2ED" blockId="4.[816,1481,221,1448]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">
|
||
Ploidy levels of knotweed are important, because they can impart reproductive barriers or reduce fertility, which determine the taxa that can successfully reproduce sexually together. For example,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56CEB32FFB8FE20A" baseAuthorityName="Grimsby and Kesseli" baseAuthorityYear="2009" box="[916,1031,1336,1359]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="japonica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56CEB32FFB8FE20A" box="[916,1031,1336,1359]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">F. japonica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
can produce seed after pollination by the related species Bukhara fleeceflower (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B518DB343FCE1E2CE" authority="Regel" authorityName="Regel" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Fallopia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="baldschuanica">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B518DB343FA40E229" box="[1239,1480,1364,1388]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Fallopia baldschuanica</emphasis>
|
||
Regel
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
; syn.:
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C303EEF030D2C4B56EAB365FA9CE2CE" authority="Regel" authorityName="Regel" box="[944,1300,1394,1419]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" genus="Polygonum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Caryophyllales" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="baldschuanicum">
|
||
<emphasis id="B944997E030D2C4B56EAB365FB46E2CF" box="[944,1230,1394,1418]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="621">Polygonum baldschuanicum</emphasis>
|
||
Regel
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
), but this hybrid seed is infertile and rarely becomes established (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFA1389D030D2C4B5055B387FA32E2ED" author="Bailey JP & Bimova K & Mandak B" box="[1295,1466,1424,1448]" pageId="4" pageNumber="621" pagination="1189 - 1203" refId="ref5761" refString="Bailey JP, Bimova K, Mandak B (2008) Asexual spread versus sexual reproduction and evolution in Japanese knotweed s. l. sets the stage for the " battle of the clones. " Biol Invasions 11: 1189 - 1203" type="journal article" year="2008">Bailey et al. 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |