treatments-xml/data/03/BD/18/03BD1870C0139E5020D72CF07255AE9A.xml

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<mods:title id="EADC145C31C695EBBA39837936E33DBC">Introduced leaf beetles of the Maritime Provinces, 7: Cassida rubiginosa Müller and Cassida flaveola Thunberg (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="DDC34F7E4843D223A61E49FF061596E3">Majka, Christopher G.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="16B2512834080AECD1CDB15B136545EC">Lesage, Laurent</mods:namePart>
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<mods:date id="2CE2DC2C671DFE6E6D4518E3A1040152">2008</mods:date>
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<paragraph id="8BABA966C0139E5820D72CF0746AACE1" blockId="1.[151,547,1735,1761]" box="[151,547,1735,1761]" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">
<heading id="D0E31E0AC0139E5820D72CF0746AACE1" bold="true" box="[151,547,1735,1761]" fontSize="11" level="1" pageId="1" pageNumber="38" reason="1">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0139E5820D72CF0746AACE1" ID-CoL="7RYLG" authority="Muller, 1776" authorityName="Muller" authorityYear="1776" box="[151,547,1735,1761]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="38" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0139E5820D72CF0746AACE1" bold="true" box="[151,547,1735,1761]" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0139E5820D72CF07737ACE1" bold="true" box="[151,382,1735,1761]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
Müller, 1776
</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0139E5820D72D2575B7ADA4" blockId="1.[151,1437,1810,2036]" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0139E5820D72D257701AD2C" bold="true" box="[151,328,1810,1836]" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">Identification.</emphasis>
Live adults of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0139E5822442D2474E1AD2C" box="[516,680,1811,1836]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="38" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0139E5822442D2474E1AD2C" box="[516,680,1811,1836]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are vivid green on dorsal surface, often with yellowish elytral margins, and are black underneath. This green pigment is ephemeral, and dried specimens preserved in collections quickly turn brownish. Its medium size (
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), confused elytral punctures, and the vivid light green color make adults recognizable immediately, even by non-experts (
<figureCitation id="132FB5E3C0139E5823E82DBD75A4ADA4" box="[936,1005,1930,1956]" captionStart="FIGURE 1" captionStartId="2.[151,255,1679,1703]" captionText="FIGURE 1. Habitus of Cassida rubiginosa, dorsal view." pageId="1" pageNumber="38">Fig. 1</figureCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC0139E5A20852D857339AADA" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="40" pageId="1" pageNumber="38" type="description">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0139E5B20852D857374AAB2" blockId="1.[151,1437,1810,2036]" lastBlockId="2.[151,1436,152,258]" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="39" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">
The first instar larva was described and illustrated by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0139E58230C2D98727CADCC" author="Swictojanska" box="[844,1077,1967,1996]" pageId="1" pageNumber="55" refString="Swictojanska, J. (2004) Comparative description of first instar larvae of Cassida stigmatica Suffrian, 1844 and Cassida rubiginosa Muller, 1776 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae). Annales Zoologici, 54, 427 - 438." type="journal article" year="2004">Świçtojańska (2004)</bibRefCitation>
. Egg bursters are absent (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0139E5825292D8576AAADF4" author="Cox" pageId="1" pageNumber="52" refString="Cox, M. (1994 a) Egg bursters in the Chrysomelidae, with a review of their occurrence in Chrysomeloidea (Coleoptera). In: Jolivet, P. H., Cox, M. L. &amp; Petitpierre, E. (Eds.), Novel aspects of the biology of the Chrysomelidae. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 75 - 110." type="book chapter" year="1994" yearSuffix="a">Cox 1994a</bibRefCitation>
). The mature larva was described by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0139E5822E42DED721FADF4" author="Paterson" box="[676,1110,2010,2036]" pageId="1" pageNumber="54" refString="Paterson, N. F. (1931) Studies on the Chrysomelidae. - Part II. The bionomics and comparative morphology of the early stages of certain Chrysomelidae (Coleoptera, Phytophaga). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 3, 879 - 948." type="journal article" year="1931">
Paterson (1931, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0139E5823272DEC7205ADF4" box="[871,1100,2011,2036]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="38">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0139E5823D92DEC7205ADF4" box="[921,1100,2011,2036]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="38" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="viridis">Cassida viridis</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
)
</bibRefCitation>
and illustrated by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0139E5B25772DED76A1AAB2" author="Peterson" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="39" pageId="1" pageNumber="54" refString="Peterson, A. (1951) Larvae of insects. Part II. Coleoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Siphonaptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera. Edwards Brothers, Inc., Columbus, Ohio. 416 pp." type="book" year="1951">Peterson (1951)</bibRefCitation>
. It can be identified using the key to species of the British cassidine larvae (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B24202AAF7379AAB2" author="Van" box="[1120,1328,152,178]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Van Emden, H. F. (1962) Key to species of British Cassidinae larvae (Col. Chrysomelidae). The Entomologists Monthly Magazine, 98, 33 - 36." type="journal article" year="1962">Van Emden 1962</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0109E5B20852AF77315AB02" blockId="2.[151,1436,152,258]" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">
Descriptions and illustrations of the pupa of 
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<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B22992AF77532AAD9" box="[729,891,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, are found in 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B24642AF772A9AADA" author="Paterson" box="[1060,1248,192,218]" pageId="2" pageNumber="54" refString="Paterson, N. F. (1931) Studies on the Chrysomelidae. - Part II. The bionomics and comparative morphology of the early stages of certain Chrysomelidae (Coleoptera, Phytophaga). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 3, 879 - 948." type="journal article" year="1931">Paterson (1931)</bibRefCitation>
(
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B24B22AF773DBAAD9" box="[1266,1426,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B25642AF773DBAAD9" box="[1316,1426,192,217]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="2" pageNumber="39" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="viridis">C. viridis</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
) and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B20882ADF77BEAB02" author="Palij" box="[200,503,232,258]" pageId="2" pageNumber="54" refString="Palij, V. F. &amp; Klepikova, P. I. (1957) [Cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) of the central Black Earth area of the RSFSR, their economic importance and the description of the pupae of the most common species]. Entomologicheskoe obozrenie, 36, 75 - 95. (in Russian)." type="journal article" year="1957">Palij &amp; Klepikova (1957)</bibRefCitation>
. A key, including 
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<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B228B2ADF7525AB01" box="[715,876,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, is provided by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B246A2ADF7311AB02" author="Palij" box="[1066,1368,232,258]" pageId="2" pageNumber="54" refString="Palij, V. F. &amp; Klepikova, P. I. (1957) [Cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) of the central Black Earth area of the RSFSR, their economic importance and the description of the pupae of the most common species]. Entomologicheskoe obozrenie, 36, 75 - 95. (in Russian)." type="journal article" year="1957">Palij &amp; Klepikova (1957)</bibRefCitation>
.
</paragraph>
<caption id="DF6BF9EEC0109E5B20D72CB874BCACA6" box="[151,757,1679,1703]" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0109E5B20D72CB874BCACA6" blockId="2.[151,757,1679,1703]" box="[151,757,1679,1703]" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B20D72CB87750ACA7" bold="true" box="[151,281,1679,1703]" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">FIGURE 1.</emphasis>
Habitus of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B21D62CA7742FACA7" box="[406,614,1680,1703]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="2" pageNumber="39" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B21D62CA7742FACA7" box="[406,614,1680,1703]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, dorsal view.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0109E5A20862CED7339AADA" blockId="2.[151,1437,1754,2020]" lastBlockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="40" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B20862CED744BACF4" bold="true" box="[198,514,1754,1780]" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">History and distribution.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B224B2CED74BBACF3" box="[523,754,1754,1779]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="2" pageNumber="39" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B224B2CED74BBACF3" box="[523,754,1754,1779]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was first discovered in North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0109E5B24212CED728FACF4" box="[1121,1222,1754,1780]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">America</collectingCountry>
in 
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Lévis, near Québec City, where beetles were observed to be defoliating burdock (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B24762D3573D1AD1C" authority="(Hill.) Bernh." authorityName="(Hill.) Bernh." box="[1078,1432,1794,1820]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="2" pageNumber="39" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="minus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B24762D3572ACAD1B" box="[1078,1253,1794,1819]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">Arctium minus</emphasis>
(Hill.) Bernh.
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B20D72D1D7750AD44" box="[151,281,1834,1860]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="2" pageNumber="39" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Asteraceae</taxonomicName>
) (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B21712D1D77FEAD44" author="Fyles" box="[305,439,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="52" refString="Fyles, T. W. (1902) A tortoise beetle new to Quebec. The Canadian Entomologist, 34 (9), 273 - 274." type="journal article" year="1902">Fyles 1902</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B21842D1D744BAD44" author="Fyles" box="[452,514,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="52" refString="Fyles, T. W. (1903) Cassida thoracica ou viridis? Le Naturaliste canadien, 10, 22 - 23." type="journal article" year="1903">1903</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B224F2D1D74CEAD44" author="Roy" box="[527,647,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Roy, E. (1902) Encore un. Le Naturaliste canadien, 29, 145 - 149." type="journal article" year="1902">Roy 1902</bibRefCitation>
). 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B22DB2D1D7513AD44" author="Schaeffer" box="[667,858,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Schaeffer, C. (1903) [The newly discovered Cassida viridis from Canada: Proceedings of the New York Entomological Society, Meeting of January 6, 1903]. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 11, 113." type="journal article" year="1903">Schaeffer (1903</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B23272D1D75F8AD44" author="Schaeffer" box="[871,945,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Schaeffer, C. (1904 a) [A correction to the minutes about a Cassida from Canada. Proceedings of the New York Entomological Society, Meeting of October 6, 1903]. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 12, 60." type="journal article" year="1904" yearSuffix="a">1904a</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B23FE2D1D7240AD44" author="Schaeffer" box="[958,1033,1834,1860]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Schaeffer, C. (1904 b) [Some notes on Coleoptera. Proceedings of the New York Entomological Society, Meeting of April 19, 1904]. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 12, 258." type="journal article" year="1904" yearSuffix="b">1904b</bibRefCitation>
) contributed to clarify its identity. It was subsequently reported by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B22562D6574F2AD6C" author="Brown" box="[534,699,1874,1900]" pageId="2" pageNumber="51" refString="Brown, W. J. (1940) Notes on the American distribution of some species of Coleoptera common to the European and North American continents. The Canadian Entomologist, 72, 65 - 78." type="journal article" year="1940">Brown (1940)</bibRefCitation>
on burdock, in Montréal, at Knowlton and Brome in the Eastern Townships of Québec, and in Shediac, New Brunswick. The species is now widely established both across 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0109E5B20D72D9576A6ADBC" box="[151,239,1954,1980]" name="Canada" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">Canada</collectingCountry>
from Alberta east to New Brunswick, and in the 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0109E5B23712D957587ADBC" box="[817,974,1954,1980]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">United States</collectingCountry>
from Maine south to Virginia and west through Ohio to Wisconsin and South Dakota (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0109E5B22F72DFD75C9ADE4" author="Riley" box="[695,896,1994,2020]" pageId="2" pageNumber="55" refString="Riley, E. G., Clark, S. M., &amp; Seeno, T. N. (2003) Catalog of the leaf beetles of America north of Mexico. Coleopterists Society Special Publication No. 1, 290 pp." type="book" year="2003">
Riley 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0109E5B22BF2DFD7573ADE3" box="[767,826,1994,2019]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="39">et al.</emphasis>
2003
</bibRefCitation>
). In the Old 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0109E5B244E2DFD7213ADE4" box="[1038,1114,1994,2020]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="2" pageNumber="53" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="world">World</taxonomicName>
, it is found throughout continental Europe (not yet recorded in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A227F2AAF74B3AAB2" box="[575,762,152,178]" name="Netherlands" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">the Netherlands</collectingCountry>
) from Fennoscandia south through the Baltic republics to 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A20D72AF776A3AADA" box="[151,234,192,218]" name="Greece" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Greece</collectingCountry>
and 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A21622AF77721AADA" box="[290,360,192,218]" name="Spain" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Spain</collectingCountry>
, in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A21D22AF77466AADA" box="[402,559,192,218]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Great Britain</collectingCountry>
, and across Siberia to the northern Far East of 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A24122AF772E9AADA" box="[1106,1184,192,218]" name="Russia" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Russia</collectingCountry>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A24F02AF7732DAADA" author="Audisio" box="[1200,1380,192,218]" pageId="3" pageNumber="51" refString="Audisio, P. (2005 b) Cassida rubiginosa Muller, 1776. Fauna Europea, version 1.3. Available from http: // www. faunaeur. org / (accessed 1 September 2007)." type="journal article" year="2005" yearSuffix="b">Audisio 2005b</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC0119E5C20862AD075B3A9FA" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="42" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A20862AD07466AB7A" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A20862AD07763AB01" bold="true" box="[198,298,231,257]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Biology.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0119E5A21742ADF7452AB01" box="[308,539,232,257]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A21742ADF7452AB01" box="[308,539,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
has been well studied in Europe by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A23992ADF72C5AB02" author="Kleine" box="[985,1164,232,258]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kleine, von R., (1917 a) Cassidenstudien III. Uber Cassida rubiginosa Mull. Entomologische Blatter, 13, 63 - 73." type="journal article" year="1917" yearSuffix="a">Kleine (1917a)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A248A2ADF733FAB02" author="Kosior" box="[1226,1398,232,258]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior (1975)</bibRefCitation>
. In Eastern 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A20B72B27771BAB2A" box="[247,338,272,298]" name="Canada" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Canada</collectingCountry>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0119E5A211E2B277449AB29" box="[350,512,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A211E2B277449AB29" box="[350,512,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is found in habitats where 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A23022B2775D3AB2A" box="[834,922,272,298]" name="Canada" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle and burdocks grow, such as agriculture lands, pastures, abandoned fields, sparsely wooded meadows, neglected orchards, clear cut areas, or similar open and/or disturbed habitats.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A20852BBF76BBA8E2" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
The species is univoltine in Ontario and Québec (LeSage, personal observations), in Virginia (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A257A2BBF773AABCA" author="Ward" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978a</bibRefCitation>
), and very likely so in the Maritime Provinces. Hibernation is in the adult stage. In 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A25032B8773DEABCA" box="[1347,1431,432,458]" name="Poland" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Poland</collectingCountry>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20D72BEF7775ABF2" author="Kosior" box="[151,316,472,498]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior (1975)</bibRefCitation>
observed a migration of adults from thistles to forest floor litter in the fall. In Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A25702BEF7756A81A" author="Spring" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Spring, A. &amp; Kok, L. T. (1999) Winter survival of Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of Canada thistle. Journal of Entomological Science, 34, 489 - 493." type="journal article" year="1999">Spring &amp; Kok (1999)</bibRefCitation>
found that leaf litter was the preferred hibernaculum of field caged adults, and inability to access preferred hibernating locations combined with fluctuating winter temperatures may result in the survival of less that one in four beetles. Adults leave their winter shelters in early spring. The earliest specimens in the Canadian National Collection (CNC) were collected on 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0119E5A237D284F75DDA892" box="[829,916,632,658]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
April 
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</date>
in southern Ontario and on 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0119E5A24AF284F7305A892" box="[1263,1356,632,658]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" value="1915-05">
May 
<quantity id="4CEC0483C0119E5A256F284F7305A892" box="[1327,1356,632,658]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.81" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" unit="in" value="15.0">15</quantity>
</date>
in the Ottawa area. The earliest adults collected in the Maritime Provinces are from 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0119E5A24262897728CA8BA" box="[1126,1221,672,698]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" value="1931-05">May 31</date>
(Kentville, Nova 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0119E5A20D728FF76AFA8E2" box="[151,230,712,738]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Scotia</collectingCountry>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A208528C777A7A982" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
Females began to oviposit between mid-March and April in Virginia (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A245D28C77325A90A" author="Ward" box="[1053,1388,752,778]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978a</bibRefCitation>
). In Europe, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20BE292F77E1A932" author="Kosior" box="[254,424,792,818]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior (1975)</bibRefCitation>
stated that oviposition started 3-7 days after mating according to temperature, day length, rain, and wind. Eggs are usually laid on the underside of the leaves, more rarely on the upper surface, and sporadically on the stem.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A208529A7741FAEC2" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A208529A7745AA9AA" author="Ward" box="[197,531,912,938]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978a)</bibRefCitation>
referring to the midrib, observed that 74% of the oöthecae were deposited on the abaxial surface, and 18% on the adaxial surface. The number of eggs in oöthecae is variable but is usually three, although oöthecae with only one egg are not rare (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A231A29D775BFA9FA" author="Kosior" box="[858,1014,992,1018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior 1975</bibRefCitation>
). In Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A24E629D776B8AE22" author="Ward" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978a)</bibRefCitation>
found an average of 4.6 eggs per oötheca, and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A235F2E3F7255AE22" author="Spring" box="[799,1052,1032,1058]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Spring, A. &amp; Kok, L. T. (1997) Field studies on the reproductive capacity and development of Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on musk and Canada thistles. Population Ecology, 26, 876 - 881." type="journal article" year="1997">Spring &amp; Kok (1997)</bibRefCitation>
found an average of 61.1 oöthecae laid per individual female over a 15-week period. In Maryland, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A23ED2E077216AE4A" author="Tipping" box="[941,1119,1072,1098]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping (1993)</bibRefCitation>
observed that many oöthecae were laid on leaves closest to the soil. In laboratory rearing, the fecundity averaged 
<specimenCount id="9D1262EFC0119E5A24E52E6F7347AE72" box="[1189,1294,1112,1138]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" type="egg">815 eggs</specimenCount>
per female; eggs hatched in two weeks at 18°C, in four days above 32°C (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A23C82EB7729BAE9A" author="Ward" box="[904,1234,1152,1178]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978a</bibRefCitation>
). The egg-laying period lasted 12 weeks (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A21F22E9F7400AEC2" author="Kosior" box="[434,585,1192,1218]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior 1975</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A20852EE77318AF8A" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
The eggs are usually laid on the lower surface of the leaves. Each egg is enclosed in secretion which turns from whitish to brown in about ten minutes, and finally, the oötheca is closed with a layer of excreta (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A25162ECF769CAF3A" author="Engel" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Engel, H. (1935) Biologie und Okologie von Cassida viridis L. Zeitschrift fur die Morphologie und Okologie der Tiere, 30, 41 - 96." type="journal article" year="1935">Engel 1935</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20A12F1777CEAF3A" author="Bibolini" box="[225,391,1312,1338]" pageId="3" pageNumber="51" refString="Bibolini, C. (1973) Contributo alla conoscenza dei crisomelidi italiani (Coleoptera - Chrysomelidae). Frustula Entomologica, 11, 1 - 220." type="journal article" year="1973">Bibolini 1973</bibRefCitation>
). Excremental coverings are thought to conceal eggs or act as physical or chemical barriers to repel natural enemies (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A21A92F7F749CAF62" author="Muir" box="[489,725,1352,1378]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Muir, F. &amp; Sharp, D. (1904) On the egg-cases and early stages of some Cassididae. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, (1904), 1 - 23." type="journal article" year="1904">Muir &amp; Sharp 1904</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A22A22F7F727EAF62" author="Damman" box="[738,1079,1352,1378]" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Damman, H. &amp; Cappucino, N. (1991) Two forms of egg defence in a chrysomelid beetle: egg clumping and excrement cover. Ecological Entomology, 16, 163 - 167." type="journal article" year="1991">Damman &amp; Cappucino 1991</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A24042F7F72B3AF62" author="Olmstead" box="[1092,1274,1352,1378]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. (1996) Cassidine defenses and natural enemies. In: Jolivet, P. H. A. &amp; Cox, M. L. (Eds.), Chrysomelidae Biology. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 3021." type="book chapter" year="1996">Olmstead 1996</bibRefCitation>
). Egg deposition, coverings, and oviposition were reviewed by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A22A82F4775C2AF8A" author="Hilker" box="[744,907,1392,1418]" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Hilker, M. (1994) Egg deposition and protection of eggs in the Chrysomelidae. In: Jolivet, P. H., Cox, M., &amp; Petitpierre, E. (Eds.), Novel aspects of the biology of the Chrysomelidae. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 263 - 276." type="book chapter" year="1994">Hilker (1994)</bibRefCitation>
, Olmstead (1994), and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A24DC2F477304AF8A" author="Selman" box="[1180,1357,1392,1418]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Selman, B. J. (1994) Eggs and oviposition in chrysomelid beetles. In: Jolivet P. H., Cox, M. L., &amp; Petitpierre E. (Eds.), Novel aspects of the biology of Chrysomelidae, pp. 69 - 74." type="book chapter" year="1994">Selman (1994)</bibRefCitation>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A20852FAF77ADAC7A" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20852FAF747CAFB2" author="Damman" box="[197,565,1432,1458]" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Damman, H. &amp; Cappucino, N. (1991) Two forms of egg defence in a chrysomelid beetle: egg clumping and excrement cover. Ecological Entomology, 16, 163 - 167." type="journal article" year="1991">Damman &amp; Cappucino (1991)</bibRefCitation>
, who studied this form of double defense (egg clumping and excrement cover) in the hispine 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0119E5A21CF2FF77546AFDA" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" box="[399,783,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Microrhopala" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="vittata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A21CF2FF774CDAFD9" box="[399,644,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Microrhopala vittata</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
, found that the fecal covering significantly reduced egg mortality. Since the parasites generally attacked the bottom egg, and while the predators rarely penetrated the fecal covering, egg masses were virtually protected against all natural enemies likely to pose a threat. Such a protection can be expected in 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0119E5A21B52C0F7493AC51" box="[501,730,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A21B52C0F7493AC51" box="[501,730,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
which also lays small oöthecae of a few eggs (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A25402C0F73DEAC52" author="Kosior" box="[1280,1431,1592,1618]" pageId="3" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior 1975</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20D72C577791AC7A" author="Ward" box="[151,472,1632,1658]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978a</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0119E5A20852CBF73D5ADE2" blockId="3.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">
There are five larval instars in 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0119E5A227B2CBF7497ACA1" box="[571,734,1672,1697]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="40" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A227B2CBF7497ACA1" box="[571,734,1672,1697]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, each one easy to recognize by its exuviae attached to the caudal fork together with excrement. In addition to the shield and fork, the larvae possess lateral spines, or scoli, that are used as sensory organs, and when they are stimulated the shield is moved to cover the body (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20DF2D37771EAD1A" author="Olmstead" box="[159,343,1792,1818]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. (1996) Cassidine defenses and natural enemies. In: Jolivet, P. H. A. &amp; Cox, M. L. (Eds.), Chrysomelidae Biology. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 3021." type="book chapter" year="1996">Olmstead 1996</bibRefCitation>
). This distinctive structure, made of dried exuviae and accumulated fecal wastes, attracted the attention of early naturalists (ex. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A22742D1F74AFAD42" author="Reaumur" box="[564,742,1832,1858]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Reaumur, R. A. F., de (1737) Memoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes. Septieme memoire. Des vers ou teignes qui se couvrent de leurs excremens. Paris, De l'Imprimerie Royale. Tome troisieme, 219 - 244." type="book chapter" year="1737">Réaumur 1737</bibRefCitation>
).&quot;Stercoraceous parasol&quot; (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A24682D1F7364AD42" author="Walsh" box="[1064,1325,1832,1858]" pageId="3" pageNumber="55" refString="Walsh, D. B. &amp; Riley, C. V. (1869) Insects infesting the sweet-potato. The American Entomologist and Botanist, 2, 234 - 238." type="journal article" year="1869">Walsh &amp; Riley 1869</bibRefCitation>
), &quot;faeces pack&quot; (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20AD2D6777E8AD6A" author="Rabaud" box="[237,417,1872,1898]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Rabaud, E. (1915 b) Notes sommaires sur la biologie des Cassides (Col.) II. Le cycle evolutif; les mues et le paquet d'excrements. Bulletin de la Societe entomologique de France, [1915], pp. 209 - 212." type="journal article" year="1915" yearSuffix="b">Rabaud 1915b</bibRefCitation>
), and &quot;frass mask&quot; (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A22D82D67756EAD6A" author="Engel" box="[664,807,1872,1898]" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Engel, H. (1935) Biologie und Okologie von Cassida viridis L. Zeitschrift fur die Morphologie und Okologie der Tiere, 30, 41 - 96." type="journal article" year="1935">Engel 1935</bibRefCitation>
), were used to described this structure but the term &quot;fecal shield&quot; popularized by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A21B52D4F7490AD92" box="[501,729,1912,1938]" pageId="3" pageNumber="52" refString="Eisner, T., van Tassell, E., &amp; Carrel, J. E. (1967) Defensive use of a &quot; fecal shield &quot; by a beetle larva. Science, 158, 1471 - 1473." type="journal article">
Eisner 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0119E5A22072D4F74CAAD91" box="[583,643,1912,1937]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="40">et al.</emphasis>
(1967)
</bibRefCitation>
is now in use. The smallest exuviae (first instar) is attached at the extremity of the fork, the largest at base, each sliding on the branches of the new fork after each molt (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0119E5A20DF2DFF7718ADE2" author="Rabaud" box="[159,337,1992,2018]" pageId="3" pageNumber="54" refString="Rabaud, E. (1915 b) Notes sommaires sur la biologie des Cassides (Col.) II. Le cycle evolutif; les mues et le paquet d'excrements. Bulletin de la Societe entomologique de France, [1915], pp. 209 - 212." type="journal article" year="1915" yearSuffix="b">Rabaud 1915b</bibRefCitation>
). As the larvae feed again, the newly produced faeces accumulate behind the previous ones.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D20D72AAF7760AB7A" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
Consequently, the fecal shield grows and moves forward at each molt with the result that before pupation, this pack contains the whole series of exuviae and all the faeces produced by the larvae during their life (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D25012AF776ACAB02" author="Rabaud" pageId="4" pageNumber="54" refString="Rabaud, E. (1915 b) Notes sommaires sur la biologie des Cassides (Col.) II. Le cycle evolutif; les mues et le paquet d'excrements. Bulletin de la Societe entomologique de France, [1915], pp. 209 - 212." type="journal article" year="1915" yearSuffix="b">Rabaud 1915b</bibRefCitation>
). The shield is also highly maneuverable and can be moved to cover areas of the body that are stimulated (Olmstead 1994). The anus is extrudable. Consequently, it can be projected and curved over the back and, through the aid of the fork and of some of the lateral spines, it forms the protective fecal shield (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D25732B0F7754AB7A" author="Walsh" pageId="4" pageNumber="55" refString="Walsh, D. B. &amp; Riley, C. V. (1869) Insects infesting the sweet-potato. The American Entomologist and Botanist, 2, 234 - 238." type="journal article" year="1869">Walsh &amp; Riley 1869</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D20852BBF72D6A982" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
The role of the shield has been the subject of several hypotheses. According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D24C92BBF7364ABA2" author="Frisch" box="[1161,1325,392,418]" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Frisch, J. L. (1720) Beschreibung von allerley Insekten in Teutschland. Berlin, Nicolai. Band 4, Series 30." type="book" year="1720">Frisch (1720)</bibRefCitation>
, cited by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D20D72B87777AABCA" author="Engel" box="[151,307,432,458]" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Engel, H. (1935) Biologie und Okologie von Cassida viridis L. Zeitschrift fur die Morphologie und Okologie der Tiere, 30, 41 - 96." type="journal article" year="1935">Engel (1935)</bibRefCitation>
, the fecal shield protects the body from rain and pests, while for 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D246D2B877285ABCA" author="Huber" box="[1069,1228,432,458]" pageId="4" pageNumber="53" refString="Huber, J. P. (1846) Memoire pour servir a l'histoire de quelques Cassides. Memoires de la Societe de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Geneve, 2, 177 - 185." type="journal article" year="1846">Huber (1846)</bibRefCitation>
and others, it is a protective shelter from insolation, but this assumption was recently rejected (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D246A2BEF737FABF2" author="Bacher" box="[1066,1334,472,498]" pageId="4" pageNumber="51" refString="Bacher, S. &amp; Luder, S. (2005) Picky predators and the function of the faecal shield of a cassidine larva. Functional Ecology, 19, 263 - 272." type="journal article" year="2005">Bacher &amp; Luder 2005</bibRefCitation>
). Larvae covered with their fecal shield are similar to droppings which may confuse large predators like birds, but not insect predators. For 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D21D4281F74C9A842" box="[404,640,552,578]" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Eisner, T., van Tassell, E., &amp; Carrel, J. E. (1967) Defensive use of a &quot; fecal shield &quot; by a beetle larva. Science, 158, 1471 - 1473." type="journal article">
Eisner 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D21A9281F746FA841" box="[489,550,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">et al.</emphasis>
(1967)
</bibRefCitation>
, ants are undoubtedly among its chief natural enemies. They were always seen foraging in large numbers in the dense herbage that included the beetle's host plants. Confronted with the inanimate shield rather than with the body of the larvae, they were quick to lose interest in such potential prey. Larvae deprived of their shield were bitten and killed, or carried away live into ant nests. On the other hand, these authors noted that the shield did not protect larvae from all predators. For instance, tests with a lycosid spider invariably resulted in the larvae being killed, an observation already made by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D251828C776ACA932" author="Engel" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Engel, H. (1935) Biologie und Okologie von Cassida viridis L. Zeitschrift fur die Morphologie und Okologie der Tiere, 30, 41 - 96." type="journal article" year="1935">Engel (1935)</bibRefCitation>
with the larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D2180292F75C5A932" authority="Linnaeus. Engel (1935)" authorityName="Linnaeus. Engel" authorityYear="1935" box="[448,908,792,818]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="viridis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D2180292F7438A931" box="[448,625,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Cassida viridis</emphasis>
Linnaeus. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D22B2292F75C5A932" author="Engel" box="[754,908,792,818]" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Engel, H. (1935) Biologie und Okologie von Cassida viridis L. Zeitschrift fur die Morphologie und Okologie der Tiere, 30, 41 - 96." type="journal article" year="1935">Engel (1935)</bibRefCitation>
</taxonomicName>
also stated that the violent movements of the larvae when disturbed actually constitute a protection insofar as they chase away enemies. According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D2519297776AEA982" author="Franz" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Franz, J. 1941. Der grune Schildkafer, Cassida viridis L., als Schadling der Pfefferminz in Bayern. Anzeiger fur Schadlingskunde, 17, 37 - 41." type="journal article" year="1941">Franz (1941)</bibRefCitation>
, the shield can protect against parasites although its effectiveness is not absolute.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D208529A77785AE9A" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D208529A777E2A9AA" box="[197,427,912,938]" pageId="4" pageNumber="52" refString="Eisner, T., van Tassell, E., &amp; Carrel, J. E. (1967) Defensive use of a &quot; fecal shield &quot; by a beetle larva. Science, 158, 1471 - 1473." type="journal article">
Eisner 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D215929A7771CA9A9" box="[281,341,912,937]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">et al.</emphasis>
(1967)
</bibRefCitation>
argued that the fecal shield of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D235D29A775F6A9A9" box="[797,959,912,937]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D235D29A775F6A9A9" box="[797,959,912,937]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae was effective in deterring ants in laboratory tests. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D211C298F7471A9D2" box="[348,568,952,978]" pageId="4" pageNumber="55" refString="Vencl, F. V., Timothy, C., Morton, C., Mumma, R. O., &amp; Schultz, J. C. (1999) Shield defence of a larval tortoise beetle. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 25, 549 - 566." type="journal article">
Vencl 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D21E6298F77ABA9D1" box="[422,482,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">et al.</emphasis>
(1999)
</bibRefCitation>
found that shields were necessary for the survival of the larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D2513298F77BEA9FA" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Plagiometriona" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="clavata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D2513298F7727A9F9" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Plagiometriona clavata</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
and that the chemicals derived from their nightshade host plant (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D24BE29D776B8AE21" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Solanaceae" genus="Solanum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Solanales" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="dulcamara">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D24BE29D776B8AE21" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Solanum dulcamara</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
L.) formed a deterrent barrier against the ant (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D23592E3F7270AE22" authority="Say" authorityName="Say" box="[793,1081,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Formica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="subsericea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D23592E3F724DAE21" box="[793,1028,1032,1057]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Formica subsericea</emphasis>
Say
</taxonomicName>
) attacks. They concluded that the incorporation of deterrent metabolites in shield defenses represented responses to selection from invertebrate predators. The role of these allelochemicals from host plants and other antipredator devices was reviewed by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D216E2EB77781AE9A" author="Blum" box="[302,456,1152,1178]" pageId="4" pageNumber="51" refString="Blum, M. S. (1994) Antipredator devices in larvae of the Chrysomelidae: a unified synthesis for defensive eclecticism. In: Jolivet, P. H., Cox, M. L., &amp; E. Petitpierre (Eds.), Novel Aspects of the biology of the Chrysomelidae. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 277 - 288." type="book chapter" year="1994">Blum (1994)</bibRefCitation>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D20852E9F723DAFB2" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D20852E9F744DAEC2" author="Olmstead" box="[197,516,1192,1218]" pageId="4" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. &amp; Denno, R. F. (1992) Cost of shield defense for tortoise beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ecological Entomology, 17, 237 - 143." type="journal volume" year="1992">Olmstead &amp; Denno (1992)</bibRefCitation>
estimated that the cost of bearing fecal shields was minimal. Being made of recycled waste products, fecal shields provide an inexpensive mode of protection from certain natural enemies. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D209D2ECF77C6AF12" author="Tipping" box="[221,399,1272,1298]" pageId="4" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping (1993)</bibRefCitation>
noticed that smaller larvae were very susceptible to generalist predators, especially coccinellids. However, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D21D22F1774AAAF3A" author="Olmstead" box="[402,739,1312,1338]" pageId="4" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. &amp; Denno, R. F. (1993) Effectiveness of tortoise beetle larval shields against different predator species. Ecology, 74, 1394 - 1405." type="journal article" year="1993">Olmstead &amp; Denno (1993)</bibRefCitation>
observed that predators with short mandibles, such as coccinellids, were effectively deterred by the larval shields of cassidines whereas nabids and pentatomids with long piercing mouthparts easily circumvented the shield defense. Consequently, a particular kind of defense does not provide complete protection against generalist predators in natural habitats.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D20852FF7749AAC7A" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D20852FF77724AFDA" author="Muller" box="[197,365,1472,1498]" pageId="4" pageNumber="54" refString="Muller, C. (2002) Variation in the effectiveness of abdominal shields of cassidine larvae against predators. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 102, 191 - 198." type="journal article" year="2002">Müller (2002)</bibRefCitation>
found that feeding by the lacewing larvae 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D23362FF7737CAFDA" authority="Stephens, 1836" authorityName="Stephens" authorityYear="1836" box="[886,1333,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="carnea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D23362FF7722AAFD9" box="[886,1123,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Chrysoperla carnea</emphasis>
(Stephens, 1836)
</taxonomicName>
was not influenced by fecal shields, and concluded that the effectiveness of shields of tansy-feeding cassidine larvae (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D20E12C277708AC29" box="[161,321,1552,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="denticollis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D20E12C277708AC29" box="[161,321,1552,1577]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">C. denticollis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D21C22C27746AAC29" box="[386,547,1552,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="stigmatica">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D21C22C27746AAC29" box="[386,547,1552,1577]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">C. stigmatica</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) varied with predators and might be based more on mechanical than on chemical modes of action. Shields also proved to be useless against the paper wasp 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D242E2C0F73D5AC52" authority="Christ" authorityName="Christ" box="[1134,1436,1592,1618]" class="Insecta" family="Eumenidae" genus="Polistes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="domidulus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D242E2C0F7305AC51" box="[1134,1356,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Polistes domidulus</emphasis>
Christ
</taxonomicName>
and ultraviolet radiation (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D21FF2C57748EAC7A" author="Bacher" box="[447,711,1632,1658]" pageId="4" pageNumber="51" refString="Bacher, S. &amp; Luder, S. (2005) Picky predators and the function of the faecal shield of a cassidine larva. Functional Ecology, 19, 263 - 272." type="journal article" year="2005">Bacher &amp; Luder 2005</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5D20852CBF75BEAD42" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
Larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0169E5D217D2CBF7797ACA1" box="[317,478,1672,1697]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="41" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0169E5D217D2CBF7797ACA1" box="[317,478,1672,1697]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are not very mobile and tend to remain on the same ramet throughout their development. The main larval feeding activity is postponed to a period when the nitrogen content of the leaves had dropped to 50% of its initial value, but when the host plant biomass had increased by 30% (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D24BB2CEF7775AD1A" author="Obermaier" pageId="4" pageNumber="54" refString="Obermaier, E. &amp; Zwolfer, H. (1999) Plant quality or quantity? Host exploitation strategies in three Chrysomelidae species associated with Asteraceae host plants. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 92, 165 - 177." type="journal article" year="1999">Obermaier &amp; Zwölfer 1999</bibRefCitation>
). Early-season larval feeding had no measurable effect on 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0169E5D23A82D377209AD1A" box="[1000,1088,1792,1818]" name="Canada" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle growth while late-season feeding significantly reduced shoot growth (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D228D2D1F75A2AD42" author="Bacher" box="[717,1003,1832,1858]" pageId="4" pageNumber="51" refString="Bacher, S. &amp; Schwab, F. (2000) Effect of herbivore density, timing of attack, and plant community on performance of creeping thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Asteraceae). Biocontrol Science and Technology, 10 (3), 343 - 352." type="journal article" year="2000">Bacher &amp; Schwab 2000</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0169E5C20852D67723DAADA" blockId="4.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastBlockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="42" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">
When full grown, the larvae discard their load of excrement and exuviae, attach their last 2-3 ventral abdominal segments to the plant by means of a sticky secretion, and pupate there. The preferred site for pupation is along the midrib of leaves or on the main plant stalk (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0169E5D23232D9772E1ADBA" author="Ward" box="[867,1192,1952,1978]" pageId="4" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978a</bibRefCitation>
). According to these authors, the pupation period averaged 9.6 days at 17.8°C and 3.5 days at 32.5°C. In 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0169E5D24CC2DFF72B3ADE2" box="[1164,1274,1992,2018]" name="Germany" pageId="4" pageNumber="41">Germany</collectingCountry>
, adults of the new generation appear in mid-July onwards with a peak in late August (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C239A2AAF7368AAB2" author="Obermaier" box="[986,1313,152,178]" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Obermaier, E. &amp; Zwolfer, H. (1999) Plant quality or quantity? Host exploitation strategies in three Chrysomelidae species associated with Asteraceae host plants. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 92, 165 - 177." type="journal article" year="1999">Obermaier &amp; Zwölfer 1999</bibRefCitation>
), an emergence period that roughly corresponds to what we have observed in Eastern 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C24542AF77239AADA" box="[1044,1136,192,218]" name="Canada" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Canada</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852ADF723CAB52" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
Larvae and adults do not eat leaves from the edges but attack them from a surface, usually the upper face. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20D72B27771AAB2A" author="Rabaud" box="[151,339,272,298]" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Rabaud, E. (1915 a) Notes sommaires sur la biologie des Cassides (Col.) I. Mode de ponte et d'alimentation. Bulletin de la Societe entomologique de France, [1915], 196 - 198." type="journal article" year="1915" yearSuffix="a">Rabaud (1915a)</bibRefCitation>
stated that the under face remained untouched but this is true only for younger larvae. Adults and larger larvae can skeletonize and severely damage the leaves (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C23DE2B0F7221AB52" author="Batra" box="[926,1128,312,338]" pageId="5" pageNumber="51" refString="Batra, S. W. T., Coulson, J. R., Dunn, P. H., &amp; Boldt, P. E. (1981) Insects and fungi associated with Carduus thistles (Compositae). United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, 1616, 1 - 100." type="journal article" year="1981">
Batra 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23A72B0F7268AB51" box="[999,1057,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">et al.</emphasis>
1981
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852B5774B5ABF2" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C21292B5774DCAB7A" author="Koji" box="[361,661,352,378]" pageId="5" pageNumber="53" refString="Koji, S. &amp; Nakamura, K. (2006) Seasonal fluctuation, age structure, and annual changes in a population of Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in a natural habitat. Ecology and Population Biology, 99, 292 - 299." type="journal article" year="2006">Koji &amp; Nakamura (2006)</bibRefCitation>
in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C22FD2B57754AAB7A" box="[701,771,352,378]" name="Japan" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Japan</collectingCountry>
, the population of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23A32B5772CFAB79" box="[995,1158,352,377]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23A32B5772CFAB79" box="[995,1158,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was characterized by a high density of over-wintered adults and a low variability in annual population density for both over-wintered and new adults. This exceptional stability for a herbivorous insect population was attributed to the longevity of the adults, some being still alive after three years.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20862BC87292A86A" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20862BC8771AA819" bold="true" box="[198,339,511,537]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Parasitism.</emphasis>
Parasitism of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C21BC283774E4A81A" box="[508,685,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chrysomelidae</taxonomicName>
by 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C229A28377530A81A" box="[730,889,512,538]" class="Insecta" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Hymenoptera</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23F228377243A81A" box="[946,1034,512,538]" kingdom="Plantae" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
was extensively reviewed by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C252B283776BEA842" author="Cox" pageId="5" pageNumber="52" refString="Cox, M. (1994 b) The Hymenoptera and Diptera parasitoids of Chrysomelidae. In: Jolivet, P. H., Cox, M. L. &amp; Petitpierre, E. (Eds), Novel aspects of the biology of the Chrysomelidae. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 419 - 468." type="book chapter" year="1994" yearSuffix="b">Cox (1994b)</bibRefCitation>
, and this topic is treated in detail for several European 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23C9281F75AEA841" box="[905,999,552,577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23C9281F75AEA841" box="[905,999,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Cassida</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
species, including 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C248C281F7326A841" box="[1228,1391,552,577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C248C281F7326A841" box="[1228,1391,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20D728677776A86A" author="Kosior" box="[151,319,592,618]" pageId="5" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior (1975)</bibRefCitation>
. The following paragraphs primarily concern the North American populations.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C2085284F74B6A90A" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C2127284F742BA892" box="[359,610,632,658]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Tschanz, B., Schmid, E., &amp; Bacher, S. (2005) Host plant exposure determines larval vulnerability - do prey females know? Functional Ecology, 19, 391 - 395." type="journal article">
Tschanz 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C218E284F7440A891" box="[462,521,632,657]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">et al.</emphasis>
(2005)
</bibRefCitation>
, the degree of exposure of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23DF284F7209A891" box="[927,1088,632,657]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23DF284F7209A891" box="[927,1088,632,657]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae on plants had a significant effect on predation but the rate of parasitism was equal on exposed or hidden plants. Ten years after the release of this cassidine in southwestern Virginia, Ang &amp; Kok (1995) estimated that parasitism and incomplete development were two major mortality factors.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C2085292F75B3A9FA" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
In North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C2177292F77D6A932" box="[311,415,792,818]" name="United States of America" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">America</collectingCountry>
, six species of parasitoids have already been identified from larvae and pupae of 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C25C1292F7754A959" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C25C1292F7750A959" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">C. rubiginosa</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
but none from eggs and adults (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C22ED297775B2A95A" author="Ward" box="[685,1019,832,858]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978b</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C244A297772E7A95A" author="Tipping" box="[1034,1198,832,858]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping 1993</bibRefCitation>
; Ang &amp; Kok 1995; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20D7295F7704A982" author="Olmstead" box="[151,333,872,898]" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. (1996) Cassidine defenses and natural enemies. In: Jolivet, P. H. A. &amp; Cox, M. L. (Eds.), Chrysomelidae Biology. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 3021." type="book chapter" year="1996">Olmstead 1996</bibRefCitation>
). In Europe, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C21A5295F74C4A982" author="Girault" box="[485,653,872,898]" pageId="5" pageNumber="52" refString="Girault, A. A. (1914) Host of insect egg-parasites in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australasia, with a supplementary American list. Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Insektenbiologie Berlin, 10, 87 - 91." type="journal article" year="1914">Girault (1914)</bibRefCitation>
reported the hymenopteran eulophid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C2406295F76A9A9AA" authority="Fonscolombe" authorityName="Fonscolombe" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" genus="Oomyzus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="gallerucae">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C2406295F737CA981" box="[1094,1333,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Oomyzus gallerucae</emphasis>
Fonscolombe
</taxonomicName>
(
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20B129A7746FA9A9" box="[241,550,912,937]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C216029A7746FA9A9" authority="Jonsc." authorityName="Jonsc." box="[288,550,912,937]" class="Insecta" family="Tetracampidae" genus="Tetracampe" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="galerucae">Tetracampe galerucae</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
Jonsc.) as an egg parasite but questioned its identity. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C24D629A7731CA9AA" author="Delucchi" box="[1174,1365,912,938]" pageId="5" pageNumber="52" refString="Delucchi, V. (1960) Liste d'identification No. 3 (Presentee par le secretariat du Service d'identification des entomophages). Entomophaga, 5: 3337 - 3353." type="journal article" year="1960">Delucchi (1960)</bibRefCitation>
listed the mymarid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C217B298F7432A9D2" authority="Soyka" authorityName="Soyka" box="[315,635,952,978]" class="Insecta" family="Mymaridae" genus="Anaphes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="pannonica">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C217B298F746EA9D1" box="[315,551,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Anaphes pannonica</emphasis>
Soyka
</taxonomicName>
as an egg parasite of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23D0298F727CA9D1" box="[912,1077,952,977]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23D0298F727CA9D1" box="[912,1077,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C24B0298F76A1A9FA" author="Muir" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Muir, F. &amp; Sharp, D. (1904) On the egg-cases and early stages of some Cassididae. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, (1904), 1 - 23." type="journal article" year="1904">Muir &amp; Sharp (1904)</bibRefCitation>
, the fecal covering of the oöthecae do not protect against parasites.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC0179E5C20852E3F77BDAC7A" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852E3F74E9AF62" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C20852E3F747EAE22" ID-CoL="55TDD" authority="Walker" authorityName="Walker" box="[197,567,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" genus="Tetrastichus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rhosaces">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20852E3F778CAE21" box="[197,453,1032,1057]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Tetrastichus rhosaces</emphasis>
(Walker)
</taxonomicName>
is a gregarious obligate European eulophid endoparasitoid of the larvae and pupae (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C21602E0777ACAE4A" author="Kaufmann" box="[288,485,1072,1098]" pageId="5" pageNumber="53" refString="Kaufmann, O. (1933) Der glanastreifige Schildkafer (Cassida nobilis L.) nebst einigen Bermerkungen urber den nebligen Schilkafer (Cassida nebulosa L.). Arbeiten aus der biologischen Abteilung fur Land-u Forstwirstschaft, 20, 457 - 516." type="journal article" year="1933">Kaufmann 1933</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C21B22E0774D1AE4A" author="Graham" box="[498,664,1072,1098]" pageId="5" pageNumber="52" refString="Graham, M. W. R. de V. (1991) A reclassification of the European Tetrastichinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae): revision of the remaining genera. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 49, 1 - 322." type="journal article" year="1991">Graham 1991</bibRefCitation>
). According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C23112E0772D9AE4A" author="Ward" box="[849,1168,1072,1098]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1975) Cassida rubiginosa Muller (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a potential biocontrol agent of thistles in Virginia. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 83, 247." type="journal article" year="1975">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1975</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C24DE2E0772A5AE4A" author="Pienkowski" box="[1182,1260,1072,1098]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">1978b</bibRefCitation>
), it is the most important parasitoid of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C21F22E6F741FAE71" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[434,598,1112,1137]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C21F22E6F741FAE71" box="[434,598,1112,1137]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C228F2E6F757EAE72" box="[719,823,1112,1138]" name="United States of America" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">America</collectingCountry>
, accounting for 14.2-23.8% of the total parasitism. The numbers of parasites reached an average of 9.9 per host, most of them being commonly located in the anal or cephalic regions. In larvae, signs of parasitism were not evident until the last larval instar when parasitized larvae showed a noticeable discoloration. Affected pupae became slightly darker. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C24FB2EE77327AEEA" author="Tipping" box="[1211,1390,1232,1258]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping (1993)</bibRefCitation>
did not find it in Maryland in his field study of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22D72ECF7570AF11" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[663,825,1272,1297]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C22D72ECF7570AF11" box="[663,825,1272,1297]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
on 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C23252ECF75F4AF12" box="[869,957,1272,1298]" name="Canada" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle. Ang &amp; Kok (1995) assumed that the 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C20812F177710AF39" ID-CoL="62CP8" box="[193,345,1312,1337]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" genus="Aprostocetus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20812F177710AF39" box="[193,345,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Aprostocetus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. collected by them in southwestern Virginia was 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C23F62F177273AF39" ID-CoL="55TDD" box="[950,1082,1312,1337]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" genus="Tetrastichus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rhosaces">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23F62F177273AF39" box="[950,1082,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">T. rhosaces</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
which parasitized up to 9% of the larvae and as much as 96% of the pupae.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852F4777BDAC7A" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
The endoparasitoid solitary tachinid fly, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22F22F477268AF8A" ID-CoL="3BR89" authority="Aldrich" authorityName="Aldrich" box="[690,1057,1392,1418]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Eucelatoria" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dimmocki">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C22F22F4775F0AF89" box="[690,953,1392,1417]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Eucelatoria dimmocki</emphasis>
Aldrich
</taxonomicName>
, accounted for 2.7-7.5% of the total parasitism in a study of the parasites in northern Virginia (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C23CC2FAF729CAFB2" author="Ward" box="[908,1237,1432,1458]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978b</bibRefCitation>
), 0-2% in southwestern Virginia (Ang &amp; Kok 1995), and 19.5% in Maryland (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C23332FF7725EAFDA" author="Tipping" box="[883,1047,1472,1498]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping 1993</bibRefCitation>
). It is a native polyphagous parasitoid of larvae and pupae which has been previously recorded from several other cassidine hosts including 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C20D72C27747AAC2A" ID-CoL="TWSH" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" box="[151,563,1552,1578]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Chelymorpha" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="cassidea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20D72C2777ECAC29" box="[151,421,1552,1577]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Chelymorpha cassidea</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22022C277513AC29" ID-CoL="4JGHV" box="[578,858,1552,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Plagiometriona" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="clavata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C22022C277513AC29" box="[578,858,1552,1577]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Plagiometriona clavata</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Fabricius, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C23AC2C2772A3AC29" box="[1004,1258,1552,1577]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C245F2C2772A3AC29" box="[1055,1258,1552,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Deloyala" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="clavata">Deloyala clavata</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
), 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C25462C277736AC51" ID-CoL="5GDWH" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Charidotella" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subSpecies" species="sexpunctata" subSpecies="bicolor">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C25462C277736AC51" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Fabricius, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C224A2C0F7548AC51" box="[522,769,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22792C0F7548AC51" box="[569,769,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Metriona" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bicolor">Metriona bicolor</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
), and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C230B2C0F720CAC51" ID-CoL="B8CF" box="[843,1093,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Agroiconota" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bivittata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C230B2C0F720CAC51" box="[843,1093,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Agroiconota bivittata</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Say, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C24CD2C0F73DBAC51" box="[1165,1426,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C24FD2C0F73DBAC51" box="[1213,1426,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Metriona" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bivittata">Metriona bivittata</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
) (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20DE2C577776AC7A" author="Aldrich" box="[158,319,1632,1658]" pageId="5" pageNumber="51" refString="Aldrich, J. M. (1932) Records of dipterous insects of the family Tachinidae reared by the late George Dimmock, with description of one new species and notes on the genus Anetia Robineau-Desvoidy. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 2920, 1 - 8." type="journal article" year="1932">Aldrich 1932</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C210B2C5777AEAC7A" author="Stearns" box="[331,487,1632,1658]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Stearns, L. A. (1933) Observations on the biology and control of Metriona bivittata Say. Journal of Economic Entomology, 26, 151 - 154." type="journal article" year="1933">Stearns 1933</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC0179E5E20852CBF7258A9FA" lastPageId="7" lastPageNumber="44" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" type="description">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852CBF72C3AD1A" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20852CBF7463ACA2" author="Ward" box="[197,554,1672,1698]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978b)</bibRefCitation>
measured only 0.7-2.1% of parasitism by the hymenopteran chalcidid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C20D72C87772AACC9" box="[151,355,1712,1737]" class="Insecta" family="Chalcididae" genus="Conura" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="albifrons">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C20D72C87772AACC9" box="[151,355,1712,1737]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Conura albifrons</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Walsh, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C21902C87754DACC9" box="[464,772,1712,1737]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub Spilochlacis 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22DB2C87754DACC9" box="[667,772,1712,1737]" class="Insecta" family="Chalcididae" genus="Conura" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="albifrons">albifrons</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
). It is a polyphagous, solitary endoparasitoid. In North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0179E5C20D72CEF76B6ACF2" box="[151,255,1752,1778]" name="United States of America" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">America</collectingCountry>
, Musesebeck 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C21E22CEF7794ACF1" box="[418,477,1752,1777]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">et al.</emphasis>
(1951) and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C222B2CEF74B0ACF2" author="Peck" box="[619,761,1752,1778]" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Peck, O. (1963) A catalog of the Nearctic Chalciodoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). The Canadian Entomologist Supplement, 30, 1 - 1092." type="journal article" year="1963">Peck (1963)</bibRefCitation>
listed 38 other hosts in 14 families in 4 orders. This chalcid is also a hyperparasite of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C21AC2D377425AD1A" box="[492,620,1792,1818]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Tachinidae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C22E52D377563AD1A" box="[677,810,1792,1818]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Braconidae</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C23792D377237AD1A" author="Ward" box="[825,1150,1792,1818]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978b</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0179E5C20852D1F76AAADE2" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20852D1F7735AD42" author="Tipping" box="[197,380,1832,1858]" pageId="5" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping (1993)</bibRefCitation>
reported that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C226E2D1F748AAD41" box="[558,707,1832,1857]" class="Insecta" family="Chalcididae" genus="Conura" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="side">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C226E2D1F748AAD41" box="[558,707,1832,1857]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">Conura side</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Walker, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C237F2D1F7277AD41" box="[831,1086,1832,1857]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">
sub Spilochalcis 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0179E5C244F2D1F7277AD41" box="[1039,1086,1832,1857]" class="Insecta" family="Chalcididae" genus="Conura" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="42" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="side">side</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
) emerged from 1.4% of the pupae. It is another polyphagous, solitary endoparasitoid with at least 45 known hosts, mostly Lepidoptera (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0179E5C20DE2D4F776BAD92" author="Peck" box="[158,290,1912,1938]" pageId="5" pageNumber="54" refString="Peck, O. (1963) A catalog of the Nearctic Chalciodoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). The Canadian Entomologist Supplement, 30, 1 - 1092." type="journal article" year="1963">Peck 1963</bibRefCitation>
). In western Virginia, this parasitoid (
<emphasis id="B9607574C0179E5C22AA2D4F7596AD91" box="[746,991,1912,1937]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="42">sub Cornura torvina</emphasis>
(Walsh)) appeared late in the season and accounted for the second highest rate of parasitism with 0-8% of the pupae parasitized (Ang &amp; Kok 1995).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F20852AAF734CAB2A" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
The hymenopteran eupelmid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F226C2AAF7501AAB1" box="[556,840,152,177]" class="Insecta" family="Eupelmidae" genus="Macroneura" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="vesicularis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F226C2AAF7501AAB1" box="[556,840,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Macroneura vesicularis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(Retzius, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23892AAF7346AAB1" box="[969,1295,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
sub Eupelmella 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24D02AAF7346AAB1" box="[1168,1295,152,177]" class="Insecta" family="Eupelmidae" genus="Macroneura" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="vesicularis">vesicularis</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
) is another polyphagous, solitary endoparasitoid, but of negligible importance in 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F238D2AF77227AAD9" box="[973,1134,192,217]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F238D2AF77227AAD9" box="[973,1134,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. Its level of parasitism in this species did not exceed 0.1% (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22682ADF7526AB02" author="Ward" box="[552,879,232,258]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski 1978b</bibRefCitation>
). At least 70 additional hosts, in various orders and families, are known for this parasitoid (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22D52B2775EDAB2A" author="Muesebeck" box="[661,932,272,298]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Muesebeck, C. F., Krombein, K. V. &amp; Townes, H. K. (1951) Hymenoptera of America north of Mexico. USDA Agriculture Monograph No. 2. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1420 pp." type="book" year="1951">
Muesebeck 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23642B277516AB29" box="[804,863,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">et al.</emphasis>
1951
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23F02B277225AB2A" author="Krombein" box="[944,1132,272,298]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Krombein, K. V. (1958) Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico Synoptic Catalog. Agriculture Monograph No. 2, First Supplement. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 305 pp." type="book" year="1958">Krombein 1958</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F24382B2772B1AB2A" author="Peck" box="[1144,1272,272,298]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Peck, O. (1963) A catalog of the Nearctic Chalciodoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). The Canadian Entomologist Supplement, 30, 1 - 1092." type="journal article" year="1963">Peck 1963</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F20852B0F72E4ABF2" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
In their two-year study of the parasites of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22F22B0F72FAAB52" authority="Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978b)" authorityName="Ward &amp; Pienkowski" authorityYear="1978" box="[690,1203,312,338]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22F22B0F751AAB51" box="[690,851,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23222B0F7219AB52" author="Ward" box="[866,1104,312,338]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski</bibRefCitation>
(1978b)
</taxonomicName>
recovered only one individual of the solitary ichneumonid, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22262B5775E3AB7A" authority="Say" authorityName="Say" box="[614,938,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Ichneumonidae" genus="Itoplectis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="conquisitor">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22262B577529AB79" box="[614,864,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Itoplectis conquisitor</emphasis>
(Say)
</taxonomicName>
. In Maryland, it accounted for 1.4% of the total parasitism (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21192BBF77B4ABA2" author="Tipping" box="[345,509,392,418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping 1993</bibRefCitation>
). In southern Virginia, it was found at all sites but without exceeding 2% of the hosts affected (Ang &amp; Kok 1995). This solitary parasite is polyphagous with over 100 hosts recorded in North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F20D72BEF76B5ABF2" box="[151,252,472,498]" name="United States of America" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">America</collectingCountry>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F214B2BEF7450ABF2" author="Muesebeck" box="[267,537,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Muesebeck, C. F., Krombein, K. V. &amp; Townes, H. K. (1951) Hymenoptera of America north of Mexico. USDA Agriculture Monograph No. 2. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1420 pp." type="book" year="1951">
Muesebeck 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F21D92BEF779DABF1" box="[409,468,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">et al.</emphasis>
1951
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22652BEF74A8ABF2" author="Krombein" box="[549,737,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Krombein, K. V. (1958) Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico Synoptic Catalog. Agriculture Monograph No. 2, First Supplement. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 305 pp." type="book" year="1958">Krombein 1958</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22AD2BEF7525ABF2" author="Peck" box="[749,876,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Peck, O. (1963) A catalog of the Nearctic Chalciodoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). The Canadian Entomologist Supplement, 30, 1 - 1092." type="journal article" year="1963">Peck 1963</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23382BEF72E9ABF2" author="Krombein" box="[888,1184,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Krombein, K. V. &amp; Burks, B. D. (1967) Hymenoptera of America north of Mexico. USDA Agriculture Monograph No. 2, Second Supplement. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 584 pp." type="book" year="1967">Krombein &amp; Burks 1967</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F208528377587A8BA" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
Parasitic nematodes are known but not yet reported in North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F23D5283775B7A81A" box="[917,1022,512,538]" name="United States of America" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">America</collectingCountry>
. In Europe, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24CD28377368A819" box="[1165,1313,512,537]" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" genus="Hexamermis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24CD28377368A819" box="[1165,1313,512,537]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Hexamermis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (96%) is the most important parasite of larvae and pupae, whereas 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F23CD281F75AEA841" box="[909,999,552,577]" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" genus="Mermis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23CD281F75AEA841" box="[909,999,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Mermis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (2%) and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24E1281F736FA841" box="[1185,1318,552,577]" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" genus="Agamermis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24E1281F736FA841" box="[1185,1318,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Agamermis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (2%) (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F20DE28677770A86A" box="[158,313,592,618]" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="family">Mermithidae</taxonomicName>
) are occasionally found; adults were primarily parasitized by 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F245728677238A869" box="[1047,1137,592,617]" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" genus="Mermis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F245728677238A869" box="[1047,1137,592,617]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Mermis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (84%) and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F256728677689A891" class="Adenophorea" family="Mermithidae" genus="Hexamermis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Mermithida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F256728677689A891" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Hexamermis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(15%) (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F2165284F7788A892" author="Kosior" box="[293,449,632,658]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior 1975</bibRefCitation>
). Loktin &amp; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F2212284F7542A892" box="[594,779,632,658]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Loktin, Yu. G. &amp; Ivanova, S. G. (1970) [A parasitic nematode - Neoaplectana - in the control of insect pests]. Trudy Sakhalin Oblast St Zashchity Rast, 1, 55 - 56. (in Russian)." type="journal article">Ivanova (1970)</bibRefCitation>
, using suspensions of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F245D284F7289A891" box="[1053,1216,632,657]" class="Secernentea" family="Steinernematidae" genus="Neoaplectana" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Rhabditida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F245D284F7289A891" box="[1053,1216,632,657]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Neoaplectana</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24BE284F769BA8BA" class="Secernentea" family="Steinernematidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Rhabditida" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Nematoda" rank="family">Steinernematidae</taxonomicName>
) larvae, killed 33-60% of the larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22DF28977509A8B9" box="[671,832,672,697]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22DF28977509A8B9" box="[671,832,672,697]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in the field.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F208628F073DCAEEA" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F208628F07700A8E1" bold="true" box="[198,329,711,737]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Predation.</emphasis>
Very little is known about the predators of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F230828FF75A3A8E1" box="[840,1002,712,737]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F230828FF75A3A8E1" box="[840,1002,712,737]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F241C28FF728DA8E2" box="[1116,1220,712,738]" name="United States of America" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">America</collectingCountry>
, although the subject has been well treated in Europe (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F220B28C774AAA90A" author="Kosior" box="[587,739,752,778]" pageId="6" pageNumber="53" refString="Kosior, A. (1975) Biology, ecology, and economic importance of cassids (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae) of the Ojcow National Park. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 20, 251 - 393." type="journal article" year="1975">Kosior 1975</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22AF28C775EFA90A" author="Olmstead" box="[751,934,752,778]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. (1996) Cassidine defenses and natural enemies. In: Jolivet, P. H. A. &amp; Cox, M. L. (Eds.), Chrysomelidae Biology. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 3021." type="book chapter" year="1996">Olmstead 1996</bibRefCitation>
). In Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F240928C773D5A90A" author="Ward" box="[1097,1436,752,778]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 b) Mortality and parasitism of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle accidentally introduced into North America. Environmental Entomology, 7, 536 - 540." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="b">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978b)</bibRefCitation>
reported that the phalangiid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F21A6292F7423A931" box="[486,618,792,817]" class="Arachnida" family="Leiobunidae" genus="Leiobunum" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Opiliones" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F21A6292F7423A931" box="[486,618,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Leiobunum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp., the reduviids 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F2306292F75C7A931" box="[838,910,792,817]" class="Insecta" family="Reduviidae" genus="Arilus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F2306292F75C7A931" box="[838,910,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Arilus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F23B4292F7367A932" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" box="[1012,1326,792,818]" class="Insecta" family="Reduviidae" genus="Sinea" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="diadema">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23B4292F72EBA931" box="[1012,1186,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Sinea diadema</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
, the pentatomid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F20BD2977741DA95A" authority="Say" authorityName="Say" box="[253,596,832,858]" class="Insecta" family="Pentatomidae" genus="Podisus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="maculiventris">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F20BD2977744CA959" box="[253,517,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Podisus maculiventris</emphasis>
(Say)
</taxonomicName>
, and the neuropteran chrysopid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F23A42977723EA959" box="[996,1143,832,857]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23A42977723EA959" box="[996,1143,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Chrysoperla</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24CD2977737DA959" box="[1165,1332,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">sub Chrysopa</emphasis>
) 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F250B2977775DA982" authority="Stephens" authorityName="Stephens" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="carnea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F250B297773D5A959" box="[1355,1436,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">carnea</emphasis>
(Stephens)
</taxonomicName>
fed on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F212D295F7447A981" box="[365,526,872,897]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F212D295F7447A981" box="[365,526,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in the field but did not specify the life stage preyed upon. In Maryland, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F251E295F77D4A9AA" author="Olmstead" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Olmstead, K. L. &amp; Denno, R. F. (1993) Effectiveness of tortoise beetle larval shields against different predator species. Ecology, 74, 1394 - 1405." type="journal article" year="1993">Olmstead &amp; Denno (1993)</bibRefCitation>
studied the predation of some mandibulate, piercing/sucking, and chelicerate predators of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F20F8298F7483A9D2" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" box="[184,714,952,978]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Charidotella" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subSpecies" species="sexpunctata" subSpecies="bicolor">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F20F8298F7409A9D1" box="[184,576,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
and of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F2367298F7229A9D2" authority="Olivier" authorityName="Olivier" box="[807,1120,952,978]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Deloyala" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="guttata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F2367298F75A7A9D1" box="[807,1006,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Deloyala guttata</emphasis>
(Olivier)
</taxonomicName>
. The selected mandibulate predators were the coccinellid beetles 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F223229D77241A9FA" authority="DeGeer" authorityName="DeGeer" box="[626,1032,992,1018]" class="Insecta" family="Coccinellidae" genus="Coleomegilla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="maculata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F223229D775C3A9F9" box="[626,906,992,1017]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Coleomegilla maculata</emphasis>
(DeGeer)
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F245929D77694AE22" authority="Linnaeus" authorityName="Linnaeus" class="Insecta" family="Coccinellidae" genus="Coccinella" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="septempunctata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F245929D77314A9F9" box="[1049,1373,992,1017]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Coccinella septempunctata</emphasis>
Linnaeus
</taxonomicName>
, and the carabid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F21E92E3F74E4AE22" authority="Dejean." authorityName="Dejean." box="[425,685,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Carabidae" genus="Lebia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="fuscata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F21E92E3F7401AE21" box="[425,584,1032,1057]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Lebia fuscata</emphasis>
Dejean.
</taxonomicName>
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22F52E3F75ABAE22" authority="Say" authorityName="Say" box="[693,994,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Geocoridae" genus="Geocoris" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="punctipes">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22F52E3F75D0AE21" box="[693,921,1032,1057]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Geocoris punctipes</emphasis>
(Say)
</taxonomicName>
was a short rostrum species whereas the heteropteran nabid 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F21E92E077549AE4A" authority="Carayon" authorityName="Carayon" box="[425,768,1072,1098]" class="Insecta" family="Nabidae" genus="Nabis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="americoferus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F21E92E0774D8AE49" box="[425,657,1072,1097]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Nabis americoferus</emphasis>
Carayon
</taxonomicName>
, and 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23002E0775B2AE49" box="[832,1019,1072,1097]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">P. m a c u l i v e n t r i s</emphasis>
had long beak. For the chelicerate predators, two spiders were selected: 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22192E6F7247AE72" authority="Hentz" authorityName="Hentz" box="[601,1038,1112,1138]" class="Arachnida" family="Oxyopidae" genus="Oxyopes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Araneae" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="salticus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22192E6F756BAE71" box="[601,802,1112,1137]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Oxyopes salticus</emphasis>
Hentz (Oxyopidae)
</taxonomicName>
and a 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24222E6F7290AE71" box="[1122,1241,1112,1137]" class="Arachnida" family="Salticidae" genus="Phidippus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Araneae" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24222E6F7290AE71" box="[1122,1241,1112,1137]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Phidippus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F25562E6F73D9AE72" box="[1302,1424,1112,1138]" class="Arachnida" family="Salticidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Araneae" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Salticidae</taxonomicName>
). The larvae were protected against the short mandibulate coccinellids but not from haustellate bugs which could pierce the shield or insert their long rostrum under the shield and feed. All these predators are generalists and common in the Northeast. Consequently, they are very likely to prey on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24042EE772ACAEE9" box="[1092,1253,1232,1257]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24042EE772ACAEE9" box="[1092,1253,1232,1257]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae as well.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F20852ECF76B7AC2A" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
Research on insect predators of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22052ECF74A0AF11" box="[581,745,1272,1297]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22052ECF74A0AF11" box="[581,745,1272,1297]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is currently ongoing in Europe. In 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F24D02ECF7355AF12" box="[1168,1308,1272,1298]" name="Switzerland" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Switzerland</collectingCountry>
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F25652ECF7776AF3A" author="Schenk" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Schenk, D. &amp; Bacher, S. (2002) Functional response of a generalist insect predator to one of its prey species in the field. Journal of Animal Ecology, 71, 524 - 531." type="journal article" year="2002">Schenk &amp; Bacher (2002)</bibRefCitation>
estimated that the paper wasp 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22EA2F177214AF3A" authority="Christ" authorityName="Christ" box="[682,1117,1312,1338]" class="Insecta" family="Eumenidae" genus="Polistes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dominulus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22EA2F1775C0AF39" box="[682,905,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Polistes dominulus</emphasis>
Christ (Vespidae)
</taxonomicName>
was responsible for 99.4% of the predation on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F213E2F7F7469AF61" box="[382,544,1352,1377]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F213E2F7F7469AF61" box="[382,544,1352,1377]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae, and thus may cancel the effect of mass releases of the beetle as biocontrol agent. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21042F47740AAF8A" box="[324,579,1392,1418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Tschanz, B., Schmid, E., &amp; Bacher, S. (2005) Host plant exposure determines larval vulnerability - do prey females know? Functional Ecology, 19, 391 - 395." type="journal article">
Tschanz 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F21EE2F4777A2AF89" box="[430,491,1392,1417]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">et al.</emphasis>
(2005)
</bibRefCitation>
in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F222D2F4774B5AF8A" box="[621,764,1392,1418]" name="Switzerland" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Switzerland</collectingCountry>
, found that exposure significantly affected predation by this wasp, and consequently larvae on hidden plants were less likely to be killed than larvae on exposed leaves. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F20B32FF77461AFDA" author="Schenk" box="[243,552,1472,1498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Schenk, D. &amp; Bacher, S. (2004) Detection of shield beetle remains in predators using a monoclonal antibody. Journal of Applied Entomology, 128, 273 - 278." type="journal article" year="2004">Schenk &amp; Bacher (2004)</bibRefCitation>
, also in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F22D62FF7756CAFDA" box="[662,805,1472,1498]" name="Switzerland" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Switzerland</collectingCountry>
, demonstrated that predation by 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24FB2FF773D5AFD9" box="[1211,1436,1472,1497]" class="Insecta" family="Nabidae" genus="Nabis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="mirmicoides">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24FB2FF773D5AFD9" box="[1211,1436,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Nabis mirmicoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
Costa (Heteroptera: 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F21C72FDF77A4AC02" box="[391,493,1512,1538]" class="Insecta" family="Nabidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hemiptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Nabidae</taxonomicName>
), and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22762FDF756BAC01" box="[566,802,1512,1537]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysopidae" genus="Chrysoperla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Neuroptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="carnea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22762FDF756BAC01" box="[566,802,1512,1537]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Chrysoperla carnea</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
can be proved using the monoclonal antibody (Mab) CRL5-1.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F20862C0076AAACCA" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F20862C007717AC51" bold="true" box="[198,350,1591,1617]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Host plants.</emphasis>
From the extensive literature 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F22892C0F7550AC52" box="[713,793,1592,1618]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">review</taxonomicName>
of 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23042C0F726AAC52" box="[836,1059,1592,1618]" pageId="6" pageNumber="52" refString="Clark, S. M., LeDoux, D. G, Seeno, T. N., Riley, E. G., Gilbert, A. J., &amp; Sullivan, J. M. (2004) Host plants of leaf beetle species occurring in the United States and Canada (Coleoptera: Megalopodidae, Orsodacnidae and Chrysomelidae, excluding Bruchinae). Coleopterists Society Special Publication, 2, 1 - 476." type="journal article">
Clark 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23CF2C0F7585AC51" box="[911,972,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">et al.</emphasis>
(2004)
</bibRefCitation>
it is clear that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F249C2C0F7336AC51" box="[1244,1407,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F249C2C0F7336AC51" box="[1244,1407,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is polyphagous, but upon closer examination, it is apparent that it exhibits preferences for the 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24A02C577306AC7A" box="[1248,1359,1632,1658]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="tribe" tribe="Cardueae">Cardueae</taxonomicName>
in the 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F20D72CBF7751ACA2" box="[151,280,1672,1698]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Asteraceae</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F216A2CBF7425ACA2" author="Zwolfer" box="[298,620,1672,1698]" pageId="6" pageNumber="56" refString="Zwolfer, H. &amp; Eichhorn, O. (1966) The host ranges of Cassida spp. (Col. Chrysomelidae) attacking Cynareae (Compositae) in Europe. Zeitschrift fur angewandte Entomologie, 58, 384 - 397." type="journal article" year="1966">Zwölfer &amp; Eichhorn 1966</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F223C2CBF7507ACA2" author="Batra" box="[636,846,1672,1698]" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Batra, S. W. T., Coulson, J. R., Dunn, P. H., &amp; Boldt, P. E. (1981) Insects and fungi associated with Carduus thistles (Compositae). United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, 1616, 1 - 100." type="journal article" year="1981">
Batra 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F22862CBF754CACA1" box="[710,773,1672,1697]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">et al.</emphasis>
1981
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F231E2CBF72E6ACA2" author="Obermaier" box="[862,1199,1672,1698]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Obermaier, E. &amp; Zwolfer, H. (1999) Plant quality or quantity? Host exploitation strategies in three Chrysomelidae species associated with Asteraceae host plants. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 92, 165 - 177." type="journal article" year="1999">Obermaier &amp; Zwölfer 1999</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F24FF2CBF769EACCA" author="Bacher" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Bacher, S. &amp; Schwab, F. (2000) Effect of herbivore density, timing of attack, and plant community on performance of creeping thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Asteraceae). Biocontrol Science and Technology, 10 (3), 343 - 352." type="journal article" year="2000">Bacher &amp; Schwab 2000</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5F20852CEF7595AD92" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
In North 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F217C2CEF77EDACF2" box="[316,420,1752,1778]" name="United States of America" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">America</collectingCountry>
, it was first reported on burdock (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F23172CEF72F3ACF2" authority="(Hill.) Bernh." authorityName="(Hill.) Bernh." box="[855,1210,1752,1778]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="minus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F23172CEF724EACF1" box="[855,1031,1752,1777]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Arctium minus</emphasis>
(Hill.) Bernh.
</taxonomicName>
) from Lévis, near Québec City (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21042D377788AD1A" author="Roy" box="[324,449,1792,1818]" pageId="6" pageNumber="55" refString="Roy, E. (1902) Encore un. Le Naturaliste canadien, 29, 145 - 149." type="journal article" year="1902">Roy 1902</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21932D377414AD1A" author="Fyles" box="[467,605,1792,1818]" pageId="6" pageNumber="52" refString="Fyles, T. W. (1902) A tortoise beetle new to Quebec. The Canadian Entomologist, 34 (9), 273 - 274." type="journal article" year="1902">Fyles 1902</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F222E2D377543AD1A" author="Brown" box="[622,778,1792,1818]" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Brown, W. J. (1940) Notes on the American distribution of some species of Coleoptera common to the European and North American continents. The Canadian Entomologist, 72, 65 - 78." type="journal article" year="1940">Brown 1940</bibRefCitation>
). 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23632D3775AAAD1A" author="Peterson" box="[803,995,1792,1818]" pageId="6" pageNumber="54" refString="Peterson, A. (1951) Larvae of insects. Part II. Coleoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Siphonaptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera. Edwards Brothers, Inc., Columbus, Ohio. 416 pp." type="book" year="1951">Peterson (1951)</bibRefCitation>
mentioned this plant species in his description of the larva from Ohio, whereas 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22E72D1F751AAD42" author="Wilcox" box="[679,851,1832,1858]" pageId="6" pageNumber="56" refString="Wilcox, J. A. (1954) The leaf beetles of Ohio (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera). Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey, 43, 353 - 506." type="journal article" year="1954">Wilcox (1954)</bibRefCitation>
in his treatment of leaf beetle fauna of this state, mentioned that it had been reported from 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0149E5F22CD2D6774ACAD6A" box="[653,741,1872,1898]" name="Canada" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Canada</collectingCountry>
on thistle but did not give the sources of his information. Later, he added burdock to the known list of host plants (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F23722D4F7586AD92" author="Wilcox" box="[818,975,1912,1938]" pageId="6" pageNumber="56" refString="Wilcox, J. A. (1979) Leaf beetle host plants in Northeastern North America (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). North American Beetle Fauna Project. The Biological Research Institute of America, Inc. World Natural History Publications, Marlton, New Jersey. 30 pp." type="book" year="1979">Wilcox 1979</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0149E5E20852D97745EAADA" blockId="6.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastBlockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" lastPageId="7" lastPageNumber="44" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F20852D977735ADBA" author="Chagnon" box="[197,380,1952,1978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Chagnon, G. (1917) A preliminary list of the insects of the province of Quebec. Part III - Coleoptera. Supplement to Report of the Quebec Society for the Protection of Plants, pp. 161 - 277." type="book chapter" year="1917">Chagnon (1917</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21C82D97778CADBA" author="Chagnon" box="[392,453,1952,1978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Chagnon, G. (1939) Contribution a l'etude des Coleopteres de la province de Quebec. Le Naturaliste canadien, 66, 1 - 16." type="journal article" year="1939">1939</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F21912D977446ADBA" author="Chagnon" box="[465,527,1952,1978]" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="52" pageId="6" pageNumber="51" refString="Chagnon, G. (1940) Contribution a l'etude des Coleopteres de la province de Quebec. Departement de biologie de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal. 385 pp." type="book" year="1940">1940</bibRefCitation>
), and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0149E5F22142D9775CEADBA" author="Chagnon" box="[596,903,1952,1978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="52" refString="Chagnon, G. &amp; Robert, A. (1962) Principaux coleopteres de la province de Quebec. Les Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal. 440 pp." type="book" year="1962">Chagnon &amp; Robert (1962)</bibRefCitation>
mentioned both thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F24E32D977348ADB9" box="[1187,1281,1952,1977]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F24E32D977348ADB9" box="[1187,1281,1952,1977]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Cirsium</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp.) and burdock (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0149E5F20A22DFF7776ADE1" box="[226,319,1992,2017]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="6" pageNumber="43" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0149E5F20A22DFF7776ADE1" box="[226,319,1992,2017]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="43">Arctium</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp.) as hosts in Québec but did specify which species was involved. From our own collecting, and on the basis of the specimens studied here, only 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22BD2AAF752AAAB1" box="[765,867,152,177]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="minus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22BD2AAF752AAAB1" box="[765,867,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">A. minus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23DC2AAF7215AAB1" box="[924,1116,152,177]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23DC2AAF7215AAB1" box="[924,1116,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(L.) Scop. are true hosts of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20D72AF77771AAD9" box="[151,312,192,217]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20D72AF77771AAD9" box="[151,312,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in eastern 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E21F82AF7745DAADA" box="[440,532,192,218]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0159E5E20852ADF755CA892" blockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
In Saskatchewan, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E21DB2ADF7464AB02" author="Maw" box="[411,557,232,258]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="Maw, M. G. (1976) An annotated list of insects associated with Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) in Canada. The Canadian Entomologist, 108, 235 - 244." type="journal article" year="1976">Maw (1976)</bibRefCitation>
reared 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22C72ADF7560AB01" box="[647,809,232,257]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22C72ADF7560AB01" box="[647,809,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
from 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23322ADF727DAB01" box="[882,1076,232,257]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23322ADF727DAB01" box="[882,1076,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24042ADF734FAB01" box="[1092,1286,232,257]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Centaurea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="jacea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24042ADF734FAB01" box="[1092,1286,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Centaurea jacea</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E25552ADF733BAB01" box="[1301,1394,232,257]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E25552ADF733BAB01" box="[1301,1394,232,257]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Arctium</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20882B277765AB29" box="[200,300,272,297]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20882B277765AB29" box="[200,300,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carduus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
sp. In West Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22682B277497AB2A" author="Hacker" box="[552,734,272,298]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Hacker, J. D. (1977 a) A chrysomelid beetle (Cassida rubiginosa). Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 2 (26), 520." type="journal article" year="1977" yearSuffix="a">Hacker (1977a)</bibRefCitation>
first reported that larvae fed heavily on leaves of bull thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20E12B0F7440AB52" authority="(Savi) Tenore" authorityName="(Savi) Tenore" box="[161,521,312,338]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="vulgare">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20E12B0F7716AB51" box="[161,351,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium vulgare</emphasis>
(Savi) Tenore
</taxonomicName>
) at Mineral Wells, and later collected adults and larvae in various counties on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20D72B57746AAB7A" authority="(Nutt.) Spreng." authorityName="(Nutt.) Spreng." box="[151,547,352,378]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="pumilum">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20D72B57772CAB79" box="[151,357,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium pumilum</emphasis>
(Nutt.) Spreng.
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22702B5774BBAB79" box="[560,754,352,377]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="crispus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22702B5774BBAB79" box="[560,754,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carduus crispus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
L., and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23182B57725AAB79" box="[856,1043,352,377]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="nutans">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23182B57725AAB79" box="[856,1043,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carduus nutans</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
L. (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E24062B5772BDAB7A" author="Hacker" box="[1094,1268,352,378]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Hacker, J. D. (1977 b) A chrysomelid beetle (Cassida rubiginosa). Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 2 (26), 597." type="journal article" year="1977" yearSuffix="b">Hacker 1977b</bibRefCitation>
). In Maryland and Pennsylvania, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E21382BBF7459ABA2" author="Batra" box="[376,528,392,418]" pageId="7" pageNumber="51" refString="Batra, S. W. T. (1978) Carduus thistle distribution and biological control in the Northeastern States. Biological control of thistle in the genus Carduus in the United States - A progress report, pp. 18 - 22." type="book chapter" year="1978">Batra (1978)</bibRefCitation>
observed that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22832BBF752EABA1" box="[707,871,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22832BBF752EABA1" box="[707,871,392,417]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was most abundant on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24C72BBF730AABA1" box="[1159,1347,392,417]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="nutans">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24C72BBF730AABA1" box="[1159,1347,392,417]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carduus nutans</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E25C12BBF776CABC9" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="acanthoides">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E25C12BBF776CABC9" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. acanthoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, but later reported its preference for 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22962B87757DABC9" box="[726,820,432,457]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22962B87757DABC9" box="[726,820,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23042B8775E7ABC9" box="[836,942,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23042B8775E2ABC9" box="[836,939,432,457]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Carduus</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
and 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23A92B877207ABC9" box="[1001,1102,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23A92B877203ABC9" box="[1001,1098,432,457]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Silybum" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Silybum</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
also mentioning some feeding on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20A72BEF7776ABF1" box="[231,319,472,497]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cynara" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20A72BEF7776ABF1" box="[231,319,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cynara</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E210D2BEF7799ABF1" box="[333,464,472,497]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carthamus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E210D2BEF7799ABF1" box="[333,464,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carthamus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and other plants (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22DF2BEF752EABF2" author="Batra" box="[671,871,472,498]" pageId="7" pageNumber="51" refString="Batra, S. W. T., Coulson, J. R., Dunn, P. H., &amp; Boldt, P. E. (1981) Insects and fungi associated with Carduus thistles (Compositae). United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, 1616, 1 - 100." type="journal article" year="1981">
Batra 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22A72BEF756BABF1" box="[743,802,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">et al.</emphasis>
1981
</bibRefCitation>
). In Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E24482BEF731CABF2" author="Ward" box="[1032,1365,472,498]" pageId="7" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article" year="1978" yearSuffix="a">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978a)</bibRefCitation>
listed five host thistles: bull thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E224E283774C4A819" box="[526,653,512,537]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="vulgare">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E224E283774C4A819" box="[526,653,512,537]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. vulgare</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E22EB2837754AA81A" box="[683,771,512,538]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E232D283775B9A819" box="[877,1008,512,537]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E232D283775B9A819" box="[877,1008,512,537]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), field thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24ED283776BFA842" authority="(Muhl.) Spreng." authorityName="(Muhl.) Spreng." class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carthamus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="discolor">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24ED2837737CA819" box="[1197,1333,512,537]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. discolor</emphasis>
(Mühl.) Spreng.
</taxonomicName>
), musk thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E21EE281F7420A841" box="[430,617,552,577]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="nutans">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E21EE281F7420A841" box="[430,617,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Carduus nutans</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), and plumeless thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23CE281F7209A841" box="[910,1088,552,577]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="acanthoides">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23CE281F7209A841" box="[910,1088,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. acanthoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
L.). 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E243C281F7307A842" author="Peschken" box="[1148,1358,552,578]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="Peschken, D. P. (1984 a) Host range of Lema cyanella (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a candidate for biocontrol of Canada thistle, and of four stenophagous, foreign thistle insects in North America. The Canadian Entomologist, 116, 1377 - 1384." type="journal article" year="1984" yearSuffix="a">Peschken (1984a)</bibRefCitation>
stated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E208A28677722A869" box="[202,363,592,617]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E208A28677722A869" box="[202,363,592,617]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
overwhelmingly fed on introduced weeds, with only one report on the native 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24B82867776AA892" authority="Michx." authorityName="Michx." class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="muticum">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24B828677681A891" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cirsium muticum</emphasis>
Michx.
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E211C284F755CA892" authority="(Muhl. ex Willd.) Spreng." authorityName="(Muhl. ex Willd.) Spreng." box="[348,789,632,658]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carthamus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="discolor">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E211C284F7797A891" box="[348,478,632,657]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. discolor</emphasis>
(Muhl. ex Willd.) Spreng.
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0159E5E208528977469A90A" blockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
Of the host plant genera in the 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E2275289774FCA8BA" box="[565,693,672,698]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Asteraceae</taxonomicName>
reported by 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E230D28977263A8BA" box="[845,1066,672,698]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Clark, S. M., LeDoux, D. G, Seeno, T. N., Riley, E. G., Gilbert, A. J., &amp; Sullivan, J. M. (2004) Host plants of leaf beetle species occurring in the United States and Canada (Coleoptera: Megalopodidae, Orsodacnidae and Chrysomelidae, excluding Bruchinae). Coleopterists Society Special Publication, 2, 1 - 476." type="journal article">
Clark 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23D62897759BA8B9" box="[918,978,672,697]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">et al.</emphasis>
(2004)
</bibRefCitation>
, all except 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24F228977368A8B9" box="[1202,1313,672,697]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Pulicaria" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24F228977368A8B9" box="[1202,1313,672,697]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Pulicaria</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E251B2897769EA8E1" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Saussurea" kingdom="Animalia" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E251B2897769EA8E1" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Saussurea</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are found in the Maritime Provinces, and many species are widely distributed in the region (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E250028FF769CA90A" author="Erskine" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Erskine, D. S. (1960) Plants of Prince Edward Island. Canada Department of Agriculture Research Branch, Publication 1088. Ottawa, Ontario. 270 pp." type="book" year="1960">Erskine 1960</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E20A128C77725A90A" author="Hinds" box="[225,364,752,778]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Hinds, H. R. (1986) Flora of New Brunswick. Primrose Press, Fredericton, N. B. 460 pp." type="book" year="1986">Hinds 1986</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E213828C7745AA90A" author="Roland" box="[376,531,752,778]" pageId="7" pageNumber="55" refString="Roland, A. E. (1998) Roland's Flora of Nova Scotia. Revised by M. Zinck. Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1297 pp." type="book" year="1998">Roland 1998</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0159E5E208629207258A9FA" blockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20862920778EA931" bold="true" box="[198,455,791,817]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Biocontrol potential.</emphasis>
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E218F292F746EA932" box="[463,551,792,818]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle, known in Europe as the creeping thistle, is one of the world's worst weeds (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E20B22977778FA95A" author="Holm" box="[242,454,832,858]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Holm, L. G., Plucknett, D. L., Pancho, J. V., &amp; Herberger, J. P. (1977) T he World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology." type="book" year="1977">
Holm 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E210129777737A959" box="[321,382,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">et al.</emphasis>
1977
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E219529777410A95A" author="Hays" box="[469,601,832,858]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Hays, S. M. (1991) Ten weeds we could live without. Agricultural Research, June 1991, 4 - 9." type="journal article" year="1991">Hays 1991</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E2228297774B1A95A" author="White" box="[616,760,832,858]" lastPageId="7" lastPageNumber="56" pageId="7" pageNumber="55" refString="White, R. E. (1996) Leaf beetles as biological control agents against injurious plants in North America. In: Jolivet, P. H. A. &amp; Cox, M. L. (Eds.), Chrysomelidae Biology, vol. 2: Ecological Studies. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 373 - 399." type="book chapter" year="1996">White 1996</bibRefCitation>
). It is a very aggressive colonizer that quickly produces stands on lands disturbed by agriculture or other human activities. The weed is difficult to control because the root system can extend several feet down and spread extensively horizontally, and the roots can persist even when broken by plowing. Their prolific seed production, seed longevity, competitive ability, and the lack of natural enemies are additional reasons of the success of thistles (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E23C929D7724DA9FA" author="Kok" box="[905,1028,992,1018]" pageId="7" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. (1998) Biological control of musk and plumeless thistles. Recent Research Development in Entomology, 2, 33 - 45." type="journal article" year="1998">Kok 1998</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC0159E5E20852E3F7712ADBA" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0159E5E20852E3F758CACF2" blockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20BB2E3F77FEAE22" box="[251,439,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subSpecies" species="world" subSpecies="catalogue">world catalogue</taxonomicName>
of agents and their target weeds of 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E231E2E3F72CCAE22" author="Julien" box="[862,1157,1032,1058]" pageId="7" pageNumber="53" refString="Julien, M. H. &amp; Griffiths, M. W. (1998) Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and target weeds. Fourth Edition. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 223 pp." type="book" year="1998">Julien &amp; Griffiths (1998)</bibRefCitation>
gives the origins of the weeds, the dates of release of control agents, their status, and the degree of control of the weeds. Closer to this region, the reviews of Kok &amp; Gassmann (2002) on bull thistle, McClay (2002) on 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E24382E6F7299AE72" box="[1144,1232,1112,1138]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle, and Gassmann &amp; Kok (2002) on musk thistle in eastern 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E229D2EB77537AE9A" box="[733,894,1152,1178]" name="United States of America" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">United States</collectingCountry>
, also includes information on the situation in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E20D72E9F76BAAEC2" box="[151,243,1192,1218]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
. In this country, the biological control attempts of weeds were reviewed four times. 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24A32E9F7687AEE9" ID-CoL="7RYLG" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24A32E9F7687AEE9" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was not mentioned in the first 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22092EE77529AEEA" authority="McLeod 1962" authorityName="McLeod" authorityYear="1962" box="[585,864,1232,1258]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">
review (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22E92EE7751EAEEA" author="McLeod" box="[681,855,1232,1258]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="McLeod J. H. (1962) A review of the biological control attempts against insects and weeds in Canada. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, Farnham Royal, England. Technical Communication No. 2. 216 pp." type="book" year="1962">McLeod 1962</bibRefCitation>
)
</taxonomicName>
. In the second 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24572EE77221AEEA" box="[1047,1128,1232,1258]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">review</taxonomicName>
, for the years 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0159E5E25562EE773DEAEEA" box="[1302,1431,1232,1258]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" value="1959" valueMax="1968">1959-1968</date>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E20D72ECF77F4AF12" author="Harris" box="[151,445,1272,1298]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Harris, P. &amp; Zwolfer, H. (1971) 29. Carduus acanthoides L., welted thistle, and C. nutans L., nodding thistle (Compositae). In: Corbet, P. S. (Ed.), Biological control programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1959 - 1968. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Farnham, England, pp. 76 - 79." type="book chapter" year="1971">Harris &amp; Zwölfer (1971)</bibRefCitation>
stated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22062ECF74A1AF11" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[582,744,1272,1297]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22062ECF74A1AF11" box="[582,744,1272,1297]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae and adults skeletonized leaves and were capable of damaging the plumeless (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E21852F17743CAF39" ID-CoL="R6M5" box="[453,629,1312,1337]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="acanthoides">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E21852F17743CAF39" box="[453,629,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. acanthoides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and nodding thistle (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E233B2F1775A2AF39" ID-CoL="R6ZB" box="[891,1003,1312,1337]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="nutans">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E233B2F1775A2AF39" box="[891,1003,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. nutans</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), but high parasitism seemed to prevent the build up of populations sufficient to control thistles. In the same 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23B72F7F7350AF62" authority="Peschken (1971)" authorityName="Peschken" authorityYear="1971" box="[1015,1305,1352,1378]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">
review, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E24142F7F7350AF62" author="Peschken" box="[1108,1305,1352,1378]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="Peschken, D. P. (1971) 30. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., Canada thistle (Compositae). In: Corbet, P. S. (Ed.), Biological control programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1959 - 1968. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Farnham, England, pp. 79 - 83." type="book chapter" year="1971">Peschken (1971)</bibRefCitation>
</taxonomicName>
mentioned that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E208C2F477739AF89" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[204,368,1392,1417]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E208C2F477739AF89" box="[204,368,1392,1417]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was one of the most conspicuous enemies of 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23DE2F477221AF89" box="[926,1128,1392,1417]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23DE2F47722DAF89" ID-CoL="VHPB" box="[926,1124,1392,1417]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">Cirsium arvense</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
but could not control the weed below the economic level. In a 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0159E5E22222FAF74A8AFB2" box="[610,737,1432,1458]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" value="1969" valueMax="1980">1969-1980</date>
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22AC2FAF7574AFB2" box="[748,829,1432,1458]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">review</taxonomicName>
, the authors focused on the impact of the weevils 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E20D72FF77458AFDA" ID-CoL="3J79Q" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" box="[151,529,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Hadroplontus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="litura">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20D72FF777CDAFD9" box="[151,388,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Hadroplontus litura</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22602FF775D9AFDA" ID-CoL="4S8SM" authority="Froelich" authorityName="Froelich" box="[544,912,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Rhinocyllus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="conicus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22602FF77546AFD9" box="[544,783,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Rhinocyllus conicus</emphasis>
(Froelich)
</taxonomicName>
, and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23932FF77320AFDA" ID-CoL="8J83Y" authority="Panzer" authorityName="Panzer" box="[979,1385,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Trichosirocalus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="horridus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23932FF772B0AFD9" box="[979,1273,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Trichosirocalus horridus</emphasis>
(Panzer)
</taxonomicName>
, the flea beetle 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E215B2FDF7494AC02" authority="Guerin-Meneville" authorityName="Guerin-Meneville" box="[283,733,1512,1538]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Altica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="carduorum">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E215B2FDF77A2AC01" box="[283,491,1512,1537]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Altica carduorum</emphasis>
(Guérin-Méneville)
</taxonomicName>
, the tephritid flies 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23FF2FDF7346AC02" ID-CoL="89C53" authority="Linnaeus" authorityName="Linnaeus" box="[959,1295,1512,1538]" class="Insecta" family="Tephritidae" genus="Urophora" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="cardui">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23FF2FDF72CEAC01" box="[959,1159,1512,1537]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Urophora cardui</emphasis>
(Linnaeus)
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E250C2FDF7705AC2A" ID-CoL="89C6J" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" class="Insecta" family="Tephritidae" genus="Urophora" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="stylata">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E250C2FDF768CAC29" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">U. stylata</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
(Harris 1984; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E21B62C27756BAC2A" author="Harris" box="[502,802,1552,1578]" pageId="7" pageNumber="52" refString="Harris, P. &amp; Wilkinson, A. T. S. (1984) Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten., Bull Thistle (Compositae). In: J. S. Kelleher &amp; Hulme, M. A. (Eds.), Biological programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1969 - 1980. Commonwealth Agriculture Bureau, Farnham, England, pp. 147 - 153." type="book chapter" year="1984">Harris &amp; Wilkinson 1984</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E236D2C2775B9AC2A" author="Peschken" box="[813,1008,1552,1578]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="Peschken, D. P. (1984 a) Host range of Lema cyanella (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a candidate for biocontrol of Canada thistle, and of four stenophagous, foreign thistle insects in North America. The Canadian Entomologist, 116, 1377 - 1384." type="journal article" year="1984" yearSuffix="a">Peschken 1984a</bibRefCitation>
). 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E24432C27729CAC2A" author="Peschken" box="[1027,1237,1552,1578]" pageId="7" pageNumber="54" refString="Peschken. D. P. (1984 b) Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Canada Thistle (Compositae). In: Kelleher, J. S. &amp; Hulme, M. A. (Eds.), Biological programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1969 - 1980. Commonwealth Agriculture Bureau, Farnham, England, pp. 139 - 146." type="book chapter" year="1984" yearSuffix="b">Peschken (1984b)</bibRefCitation>
indicated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E25C12C27775FAC51" ID-CoL="7RYLG" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E25C12C27775FAC51" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was also present in the release pastures of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E235A2C0F75C9AC51" ID-CoL="3J79Q" box="[794,896,1592,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Hadroplontus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="litura">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E235A2C0F75C9AC51" box="[794,896,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">H. litura</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, together with the rust 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E24D72C0F7753AC7A" authority="(Str.) Rohl." authorityName="(Str.) Rohl." class="Pucciniomycetes" family="Pucciniaceae" genus="Puccinia" kingdom="Chromista" order="Pucciniales" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="species" species="punctiformis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E24D72C0F73D2AC51" box="[1175,1435,1592,1617]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Puccinia punctiformis</emphasis>
(Str.) Rohl.
</taxonomicName>
and the weevil 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E21912C5774A5AC7A" authority="Scopoli" authorityName="Scopoli" box="[465,748,1632,1658]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Cleonus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="piger">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E21912C57743FAC79" box="[465,630,1632,1657]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cleonus piger</emphasis>
(Scopoli)
</taxonomicName>
, and consequently assumed that the decline of some thistle patches was caused by one or a combination of these agents. In the last 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23BF2CBF7206ACA2" box="[1023,1103,1672,1698]" class="Insecta" family="Tachinidae" genus="Anetia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="review">review</taxonomicName>
available, from 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C0159E5E25562CBF73DEACA2" box="[1302,1431,1672,1698]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" value="1981" valueMax="2000">1981-2000</date>
, McClay 
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E20BD2C877770ACC9" box="[253,313,1712,1737]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">et al.</emphasis>
(2002) cited the previous works of 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22A02C8775DDACCA" author="Zwolfer" box="[736,916,1712,1738]" pageId="7" pageNumber="56" refString="Zwolfer, H. (1969) Experimental feeding ranges of species of Chrysomelidae (Col.) associated with Cynareae (Compositae) in Europe. Technical Bulletin, Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, 12, 115 - 130." type="journal article" year="1969">Zwölfer (1969)</bibRefCitation>
in Europe and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E240A2C8773D4ACCA" box="[1098,1437,1712,1738]" pageId="7" pageNumber="55" refString="Ward R. H. &amp; Pienkowski, R. L. (1978 a) Biology of Cassida rubiginosa, a thistle-feeding shield beetle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 585 - 591." type="journal article">Ward &amp; Pienkowski (1978a)</bibRefCitation>
in Virginia, but without new information on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22DF2CEF7509ACF1" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[671,832,1752,1777]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22DF2CEF7509ACF1" box="[671,832,1752,1777]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C0159E5E23252CEF7588ACF2" box="[869,961,1752,1778]" name="Canada" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Canada</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C0159E5E20852D377712ADBA" blockId="7.[151,1437,152,1978]" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">
The first concerted attempt at biological control of thistles was initiated in Virginia in 1969 against musk thistle. This program started with the introduction of a head-feeding weevil, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E240D2D1F7377AD41" ID-CoL="4S8SM" box="[1101,1342,1832,1857]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Rhinocyllus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="conicus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E240D2D1F7377AD41" box="[1101,1342,1832,1857]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Rhinocyllus conicus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, subsequently followed by the introduction of two rosette feeding weevils, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E23F82D677293AD69" ID-CoL="8J83Y" box="[952,1242,1872,1897]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Trichosirocalus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="horridus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E23F82D677293AD69" box="[952,1242,1872,1897]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Trichosirocalus horridus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E25532D6777A2AD92" ID-CoL="3J79R" authority="Fabricius" authorityName="Fabricius" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Hadroplontus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="trimaculatus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E25532D677715AD91" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Hadroplontus trimaculatus</emphasis>
(Fabricius)
</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22422D4F74CBAD92" author="Kok" box="[514,642,1912,1938]" pageId="7" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. (1978) Status of biological control of musk thistle in Virginia. Biological control of thistles in the genus Carduus in the United States - A progress report. pp. 23 - 30." type="book chapter" year="1978">Kok 1978</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C0159E5E22D52D4F749DAD92" author="Kok" box="[661,724,1912,1938]" pageId="7" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. (1979) Biological control of Carduus thistles in northeastern U. S. A. Proceedings of the 4 th International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. pp. 101 - 104." type="book chapter" year="1979">1979</bibRefCitation>
). 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C0159E5E22B02D4F7595AD91" ID-CoL="7RYLG" box="[752,988,1912,1937]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="7" pageNumber="44" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C0159E5E22B02D4F7595AD91" box="[752,988,1912,1937]" italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="44">Cassida rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was also considered as a potential biological agent.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC01A9E5020852AAF7560A95A" lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="46" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" type="description">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5120852AAF77AEABA2" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
In Saskatchewan, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121DA2AAF7462AAB2" author="Maw" box="[410,555,152,178]" pageId="8" pageNumber="54" refString="Maw, M. G. (1976) An annotated list of insects associated with Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) in Canada. The Canadian Entomologist, 108, 235 - 244." type="journal article" year="1976">Maw (1976)</bibRefCitation>
noted that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5122F02AAF7518AAB1" box="[688,849,152,177]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5122F02AAF7518AAB1" box="[688,849,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
could be sufficiently numerous at times to defoliate thistles in Saskatchewan. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121B42AF774C2AADA" author="Batra" box="[500,651,192,218]" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Batra, S. W. T. (1978) Carduus thistle distribution and biological control in the Northeastern States. Biological control of thistle in the genus Carduus in the United States - A progress report, pp. 18 - 22." type="book chapter" year="1978">Batra (1978)</bibRefCitation>
in Maryland, however, pointed out that the beetle did not significantly reduce the vigor of thistles although leaves could be extensively damaged in some areas. In their study of the stress caused by five organisms on 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5122C42B277495AB2A" box="[644,732,272,298]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle on the island of Montréal (Québec), 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5124A32B277751AB52" author="Forsyth" pageId="8" pageNumber="52" refString="Forsyth, S. F. &amp; Watson, A. K. (1985) Stress inflicted by organism on Canada thistle. Proceedings of the VI International Symposium on Biological Control of weeds. pp. 425 - 431." type="proceedings paper" year="1985">Forsyth &amp; Watson (1985)</bibRefCitation>
estimated that defoliation over 50% was required to reduce weed vigor, but that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5124B72B0F73D5AB51" box="[1271,1436,312,337]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5124B72B0F73D5AB51" box="[1271,1436,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
rarely achieved this. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121CC2B577428AB7A" author="Cartwright" box="[396,609,352,378]" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Cartwright, B. O. (1984) Response of Carduus thistles to three biological control agents. Dissertation Abstracts, 45, 57." type="journal article" year="1984">Cartwright (1984)</bibRefCitation>
estimated that an infestation by 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5123A12B5772CAAB79" box="[993,1155,352,377]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5123A12B5772CAAB79" box="[993,1155,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was equivalent to a 50- 75% mechanical defoliation.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5120852B877467A932" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
In Maryland, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E51212B2B877456ABCA" author="Tipping" box="[363,543,432,458]" pageId="8" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1992) The impact of three insect herbivores on seed production of musk thistle (Carduus thoermeri). Maryland Entomologist, 3, 155 - 159." type="journal article" year="1992">Tipping (1992)</bibRefCitation>
reported 72% seed reduction of musk thistle but these exceptional results were obtained with field-caged individuals protected from parasites and predators. In Virginia, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5124BE2BEF7756A81A" author="Cartwright" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Cartwright, B. &amp; Kok, L. T. (1990) Feeding by Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and the effects of defoliation on growth of musk thistles. Journal of Entomological Science, 25, 538 - 547." type="journal article" year="1990">Cartwright &amp; Kok (1990)</bibRefCitation>
found that the beetle could significantly affect the growth of musk thistle when more than half of the foliage was eaten. 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121DB281F748EA842" author="Cartwright" box="[411,711,552,578]" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Cartwright, B. &amp; Kok, L. T. (1990) Feeding by Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and the effects of defoliation on growth of musk thistles. Journal of Entomological Science, 25, 538 - 547." type="journal article" year="1990">Cartwright &amp; Kok (1990)</bibRefCitation>
also studied the effects of defoliation by 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5124EB281F7304A841" box="[1195,1357,552,577]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5124EB281F7304A841" box="[1195,1357,552,577]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
on the growth of musk thistles in Virginia. They found no reduction in seed yield despite an average 23.6% defoliation, but observed that growth was more adversely affected by multiple than single defoliations, particularly when 50% or more of the foliage was removed. Thus, although it is unlikely that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51242B28977347A8B9" box="[1131,1294,672,697]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51242B28977347A8B9" box="[1131,1294,672,697]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
can control 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5120D728FF76B2A8E1" box="[151,251,712,737]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Carduus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120D728FF76B2A8E1" box="[151,251,712,737]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Carduus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
thistles by itself, it can add substantially to the total stress on the weeds if used in conjunction with other biological control agents. The recent attempts to establish the beetle in South Dakota did not succeed (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5120DF292F7718A932" author="Liu" box="[159,337,792,818]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Liu, Z., Clay, S. A., &amp; Brinkman, M. (2000) Biological control of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) in South Dakota. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Sciences, 79, 21 - 34." type="journal article" year="2000">
Liu 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E512091292F7742A931" box="[209,267,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
2000
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E51211C292F746BA932" author="Reed" box="[348,546,792,818]" pageId="8" pageNumber="54" refString="Reed, C. C., Larson, D. L., &amp; Larson, J. L. (2006) Canada thistle biological control agents on two South Dakota wildlife refuges. Natural Areas Journal, 26, 47 - 52." type="journal article" year="2006">
Reed 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5121E0292F7792A931" box="[416,475,792,817]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
2006
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E512085297777CAA9D2" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E512085297777CEA95A" author="Ang" box="[197,391,832,858]" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Ang, B. N., Kok, L. T., Holtzman, G. I., &amp; Wolf, D. D. (1994) Competitive growth of Canada thistle, tall fescue and crownvetch in the presence of a thistle defoliator, Cassida rubiginosa Muller (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Biological Control, 4, 277 - 284." type="journal article" year="1994">
Ang 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120BF29777770A959" box="[255,313,832,857]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
(1994
</bibRefCitation>
, 1995) looked at the competitive growth of 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5123C629777597A95A" box="[902,990,832,858]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle, tall fescue (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5124832977776FA982" authority="Schreb." authorityName="Schreb." class="Liliopsida" family="Poaceae" genus="Festuca" kingdom="Plantae" order="Poales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arundinacea">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51248329777689A981" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Festuca arundinacea</emphasis>
Schreb.
</taxonomicName>
), and crown vetch (
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E512254295F7485A981" box="[532,716,872,897]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Coronilla" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="varia">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E512254295F7485A981" box="[532,716,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Coronilla varia</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
L.) in the presence of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51239F295F72CBA981" box="[991,1154,872,897]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51239F295F72CBA981" box="[991,1154,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. Their results indicated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51208B29A77725A9A9" box="[203,364,912,937]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51208B29A77725A9A9" box="[203,364,912,937]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
enhanced the impact of the plant competitors by inhibiting the ability of thistle to compete against other plants.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E51208529D77521AC2A" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
In another approach, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121FD29D77427A9FA" author="Tipping" box="[445,622,992,1018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="55" refString="Tipping, P. W. (1993) Field studies with Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Canada thistle. Environmental Entomology, 22, 1402 - 1407." type="journal article" year="1993">Tipping (1993)</bibRefCitation>
in Maryland studied the interaction between 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E51243C29D7729DA9FA" box="[1148,1236,992,1018]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51257129D7769FAE21" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51257129D7769FAE21" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, and the rust 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5121392E3F7577AE22" authority="(Strauss.) Rohl." authorityName="(Strauss.) Rohl." box="[377,830,1032,1058]" class="Pucciniomycetes" family="Pucciniaceae" genus="Puccinia" kingdom="Chromista" order="Pucciniales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="species" species="punctiformis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5121392E3F7437AE21" box="[377,638,1032,1057]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Puccinia punctiformis</emphasis>
(Strauss.) Röhl.
</taxonomicName>
(Uredinales: 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51239F2E3F7237AE22" box="[991,1150,1032,1058]" class="Pucciniomycetes" family="Pucciniaceae" kingdom="Fungi" order="Pucciniales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="family">Pucciniaceae</taxonomicName>
). He found that infected plants suffered or did not bloom but were not more attractive than healthy ones to the beetle. The following year, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5120982E6F7783AE72" author="Kok" box="[216,458,1112,1138]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. &amp; Abad, R. G. (1994) Transmission of Puccinia carduorum by the musk thistle herbivores, Cassida rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Trichosirocalus horridus and Rhinocyllus conicus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 29, 186 - 191." type="journal article" year="1994">Kok &amp; Abad (1994)</bibRefCitation>
demonstrated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5122EF2E6F751BAE71" box="[687,850,1112,1137]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5122EF2E6F751BAE71" box="[687,850,1112,1137]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
adults could disperse spores of the rust 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5125742E6F772DAE9A" authority="Jacky" authorityName="Jacky" class="Pucciniomycetes" family="Pucciniaceae" genus="Puccinia" kingdom="Chromista" order="Pucciniales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="species" species="carduorum">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5125742E6F7751AE99" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Puccinia carduorum</emphasis>
Jacky
</taxonomicName>
, an autoecius rust fungus imported from 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E51230B2EB775D6AE9A" box="[843,927,1152,1178]" name="Turkey" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Turkey</collectingCountry>
for the control of musk thistle (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5125592EB776B2AEC2" author="Baudoin" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Baudoin, A. B. A. M., Abad, R. G., Kok, L. T., &amp; Bruckart, W. L. (1993) Field evaluation of Puccinia carduorum for biological control of musk thistle. Biological control, 3, 53 - 60." type="journal article" year="1993">
Baudoin 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5125C72EB776FCAEC1" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
1993
</bibRefCitation>
). The spores were attached to the tarsal setae of the adults and consequently the beetles increased the effective control of this weed. According to 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5122E52EE77538AEEA" box="[677,881,1232,1258]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T., Abad, R. G., &amp; Baudoin, A. B. A. M. (1996) Effects of Puccinia carduorum on musk thistle herbivores. Biological Control, 6, 123 - 129." type="journal article">
Kok 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51229F2EE77552AEE9" box="[735,795,1232,1257]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
(1996)
</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5123ED2EE77267AEEA" author="Kok" box="[941,1070,1232,1258]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. (1998) Biological control of musk and plumeless thistles. Recent Research Development in Entomology, 2, 33 - 45." type="journal article" year="1998">Kok (1998</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E51247C2EE77232AEEA" author="Kok" box="[1084,1147,1232,1258]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T. (2001) Classical biological control of nodding and plumeless thistles. Biological Control, 21, 206 - 213." type="journal article" year="2001">2001</bibRefCitation>
), the longevity, egg production, and larval development of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5122022ECF74ACAF11" box="[578,741,1272,1297]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5122022ECF74ACAF11" box="[578,741,1272,1297]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
were not adversely affected by the rust fungus. However, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5120D72F177726AF3A" author="Kluth" box="[151,367,1312,1338]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kluth, S., Kruess, A., &amp; Tscharntke, T. (2001) Herbivore Insekten als Ubertrager pflanzenpathogener Pilze - schadet oder nutzt der Pilz den Herbivoren? Mitteilungun der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur allgemeine und angewandte Entomologie, 13, 61 - 64." type="journal article" year="2001">
Kluth 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120A32F177756AF39" box="[227,287,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
(2001
</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E51213E2F1777F2AF3A" author="Kluth" box="[382,443,1312,1338]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kluth, S., Kruess, A., &amp; Tscharntke, T. (2002) Insects as vectors of plant pathogens: mutualistic and antagonistic interactions. Oecologia, 133, 193 - 199." type="journal article" year="2002">2002</bibRefCitation>
) in 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5121AB2F177411AF3A" box="[491,600,1312,1338]" name="Germany" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Germany</collectingCountry>
demonstrated that this interaction between 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5124232F17734FAF39" box="[1123,1286,1312,1337]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5124232F17734FAF39" box="[1123,1286,1312,1337]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and the rust fungus 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5120AF2F7F77E9AF61" box="[239,416,1352,1377]" class="Pucciniomycetes" family="Pucciniaceae" genus="Puccinia" kingdom="Chromista" order="Pucciniales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="species" species="punctiformis">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120AF2F7F77E9AF61" box="[239,416,1352,1377]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">P. punctiformis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was antagonistic. Although 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5122B42F7F75DFAF61" box="[756,918,1352,1377]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5122B42F7F75DFAF61" box="[756,918,1352,1377]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
transferred spores, the biomass of the adult beetles was significantly reduced, the larval and pupal development tended to be prolonged, and the mortality increased when feeding on infected plants. These results were called into question by the laboratory investigations of 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5120B92FF7778CAFDA" box="[249,453,1472,1498]" pageId="8" pageNumber="53" refString="Kok, L. T., Abad, R. G., &amp; Baudoin, A. B. A. M. (1996) Effects of Puccinia carduorum on musk thistle herbivores. Biological Control, 6, 123 - 129." type="journal article">
Kok 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5121742FF77726AFD9" box="[308,367,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">et al.</emphasis>
(1996)
</bibRefCitation>
who found that adults and larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51233B2FF77254AFD9" box="[891,1053,1472,1497]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51233B2FF77254AFD9" box="[891,1053,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
preferred healthy leaves or pustule-free areas of infected leaves, and consequently the rust did not significantly interfere with the development and reproduction of the musk thistle herbivores.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5120852C0F7443ACCA" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
In 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5120A82C0F771FAC52" box="[232,342,1592,1618]" name="Germany" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Germany</collectingCountry>
, Kruess (2002) examined the indirect interactions between the necrotrophic fungus 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5125092C0F77CDAC7A" authority="Plowr." authorityName="Plowr." class="Dothideomycetes" family="Didymellaceae" genus="Phoma" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Fungi" order="Pleosporales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="destructiva">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5125092C0F7750AC79" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5125092C0F73D5AC51" box="[1353,1436,1592,1617]" name="Myanmar" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Phoma</collectingCountry>
destructiva
</emphasis>
(Plowr.)
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5121D82C57747AAC7A" box="[408,563,1632,1658]" class="Dothideomycetes" kingdom="Fungi" order="Pleosporales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="order">Pleosporales</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5122012C577569AC7A" box="[577,800,1632,1658]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Leptosphaeriaceae" kingdom="Fungi" order="Pleosporales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="family">Leptosphaeriaceae</taxonomicName>
), 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5123782C5775D9AC7A" box="[824,912,1632,1658]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle, and 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E51246C2C57729BAC79" box="[1068,1234,1632,1657]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E51246C2C57729BAC79" box="[1068,1234,1632,1657]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. Adults avoided infected thistles for egg deposition and feeding, the larval development was negatively affected, and larval and pupal mortality was higher.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5120852CEF72C6AD6A" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
In 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5120A62CEF773CACF2" box="[230,373,1752,1778]" name="Switzerland" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Switzerland</collectingCountry>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01A9E5121C12CEF74E6ACF2" author="Bacher" box="[385,687,1752,1778]" pageId="8" pageNumber="51" refString="Bacher, S. &amp; Schwab, F. (2000) Effect of herbivore density, timing of attack, and plant community on performance of creeping thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Asteraceae). Biocontrol Science and Technology, 10 (3), 343 - 352." type="journal article" year="2000">Bacher &amp; Schwab (2000)</bibRefCitation>
concluded that high levels of plant competition combined with herbivory of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5121732D37779CAD19" box="[307,469,1792,1817]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5121732D37779CAD19" box="[307,469,1792,1817]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae led to 50% mortality of 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E51230E2D3775EFAD1A" box="[846,934,1792,1818]" name="Canada" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Canada</collectingCountry>
thistle during the growing season. Consequently, they believed that an increase of herbivores in combination with breaking the root system by tillage and the establishment of competitive plants may be a feasible way to control the weed.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5120852D407531AD92" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" box="[197,888,1911,1938]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120852D4077D1AD91" bold="true" box="[197,408,1911,1937]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Locality records.</emphasis>
A total of 
<specimenCount id="9D1262EFC01A9E5122582D4F74FFAD92" box="[536,694,1912,1938]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" type="generic">57 specimens</specimenCount>
were examined:
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01A9E5020862DA87560A95A" blockId="8.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastBlockId="9.[151,1436,151,1178]" lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="46" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5120862DA8743BADB9" bold="true" box="[198,626,1951,1977]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">NEW BRUNSWICK: Albert Co.:</emphasis>
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01A9E51223C2D977549ADBA" box="[636,768,1952,1978]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" value="2004-07-07">7.VII.2004</date>
, R.P. Webster, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5123F82D977232ADB9" box="[952,1147,1952,1977]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5123F82D977232ADB9" box="[952,1147,1952,1977]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (1, RWC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5125542DA87742ADE1" bold="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Westmoreland Co.:</emphasis>
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01A9E5121542DFF77DCADE2" box="[276,405,1992,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" value="1939-07-02">2.VII.1939</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01A9E5121902DFF741AADE2" box="[464,595,1992,2018]" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" value="1939-07-04">4.VII.1939</date>
, Shediac, W.J. Brown, on 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01A9E5123CD2DFF7270ADE1" box="[909,1081,1992,2017]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Arctium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="8" pageNumber="45" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="minus">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5123CD2DFF7270ADE1" box="[909,1081,1992,2017]" italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">Arctium minus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (9, CNC). 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01A9E5024872DF07711AAB1" bold="true" lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="46" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">
NOVA 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01A9E5125622DF073DEADE1" box="[1314,1431,1991,2017]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="8" pageNumber="45">SCOTIA</collectingCountry>
: Annapolis Co.:
</emphasis>
Bridgetown, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5022442AAF7437AAB2" box="[516,638,152,178]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1958-09-07">7.IX.1958</date>
, C.R. MacLellan, (1, ACNS); Granville Ferry, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50248E2AAF731EAAB2" box="[1230,1367,152,178]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-06-30">30.VI.2002</date>
, C.G. Majka, coast field on thistle, (1, CGMC); Hampton, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5022BE2AF775C5AADA" box="[766,908,192,218]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2005-08-07">7.VIII.2005</date>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5023D72AF77211AAD9" box="[919,1112,192,217]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5023D72AF77211AAD9" box="[919,1112,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (2, CGMC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5024BE2A887685AB01" bold="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cape Breton Co.:</emphasis>
Glace Bay, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5021272ADF77BDAB02" box="[359,500,232,258]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1994-08-03">3.VIII.1994</date>
, D.B. McCorquodale, (1, CBU); Schooner Pond, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5024182ADF7286AB02" box="[1112,1231,232,258]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2003-09-06">6.IX.2003</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5025502ADF73DEAB02" box="[1296,1431,232,258]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2003-09-11">11.IX.2003</date>
, C.W. D'Orsay, (2, CBU); Sydney Tar Ponds, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5022FD2B27757FAB2A" box="[701,822,272,298]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1996-06-07">7.VI.1996</date>
, L.A. Hudson, (1, CBU); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5024352B387373AB29" bold="true" box="[1141,1338,271,297]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Colchester Co.:</emphasis>
Debert, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5020D72B0F7756AB52" box="[151,287,312,338]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1999-09-12">12.IX.1999</date>
, J. Ogden, (1, NSNR); Shubenacadie, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5022AA2B0F752AAB52" box="[746,867,312,338]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2003-06-02">2.VI.2003</date>
, J. Ogden, (1, NSNR); Truro, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50248D2B0F7319AB52" box="[1229,1360,312,338]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1982-07-06">6.VII.1982</date>
, M.A. Bulger and L.H. Lutz, (2, NSAC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E50226C2B68754EAB79" bold="true" box="[556,775,351,377]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cumberland Co.:</emphasis>
Amherst, no date indicated, J. Ogden, (1, JOC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E50257F2B687685ABA1" bold="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Halifax Co.:</emphasis>
Halifax, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5021012BBF778DABA2" box="[321,452,392,418]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1967-07-03">3.VII.1967</date>
, K.A. Neil, (1, NSMC); Point Pleasant Park, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5023B62BBF7235ABA2" box="[1014,1148,392,418]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2001-06-30">30.VI.2001</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5024FC2BBF731EABA2" box="[1212,1367,392,418]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2001-08-15">15.VIII.2001</date>
, C.G. Majka, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5020B32B8777FEABC9" box="[243,439,432,457]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5020B32B8777FEABC9" box="[243,439,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (2, CGMC); south-end Halifax, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50230B2B877598ABCA" box="[843,977,432,458]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2001-06-19">19.VI.2001</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5024502B8772D1ABCA" box="[1040,1176,432,458]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2001-06-26">26.VI.2001</date>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5024E72B877323ABC9" box="[1191,1386,432,457]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5024E72B877323ABC9" box="[1191,1386,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (2, CGMC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5021462BE077C5ABF1" bold="true" box="[262,396,471,497]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Hants Co.:</emphasis>
Enfield, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5021B82BEF74DDABF2" box="[504,660,472,498]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2005-08-22">22.VIII.2005</date>
, C.G. Majka, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5023732BEF75BAABF1" box="[819,1011,472,497]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Asteraceae" genus="Cirsium" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asterales" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="arvense">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5023732BEF75BAABF1" box="[819,1011,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Cirsium arvense</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, (1, CGMC); Maitland, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50254F2BEF73DEABF2" box="[1295,1431,472,498]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-06-25">25.VI.2002</date>
, A.J. Hebda, dikeland, (1, NSMC); Noel Shore, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50228D28377504A81A" box="[717,845,512,538]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-07-02">2.VII.2002</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5023C928377245A81A" box="[905,1036,512,538]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-07-09">9.VII.2002</date>
, A.J. Hebda, garden, (3, NSMC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5020D728107702A841" bold="true" box="[151,331,551,577]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Inverness Co.:</emphasis>
Scotsville, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E502194281F742EA842" box="[468,615,552,578]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1975-07-10">10.VII.1975</date>
, no collector indicated, (1, NSMC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E502452281072D1A841" bold="true" box="[1042,1176,551,577]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Kings Co.:</emphasis>
no location indicated, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5020D728677756A86A" box="[151,287,592,618]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1956-06-27">27.VI.1956</date>
, H.B. Specht, (11, NSMC); Canard Creek, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E502365286775E3A86A" box="[805,938,592,618]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1987-06-12">12.VI.1987</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5023A728677223A86A" box="[999,1130,592,618]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1988-07-04">4.VII.1988</date>
, J.A. Adams, (2, NSAC); Kentville, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E502154284F77EDA892" box="[276,420,632,658]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1950-07-16">16.VII.1950</date>
and 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5021A0284F7424A892" box="[480,621,632,658]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1952-08-06">6.VIII.1952</date>
, V.R. Vickery, (3, NSAC); Kentville, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E502471284F72E5A892" box="[1073,1196,632,658]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2005-05-31">31.V.2005</date>
, C. Sheffield and S. Westby, (1, ACNS); Porter Pt., 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50225E289774E6A8BA" box="[542,687,672,698]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1948-07-15">15.VII.1948</date>
, K.D. Archibald, (1, NSMC); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E50246A28A872B0A8B9" bold="true" box="[1066,1273,671,697]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Lunenburg Co.:</emphasis>
Bridgewater, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5020D728FF7759A8E2" box="[151,272,712,738]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-09-05">5.IX.2002</date>
, G.D. Selig, (1, GSC). 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E50227A28F075F6A8E1" bold="true" box="[570,959,711,737]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">
PRINCE EDWARD 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01B9E50230728F075F3A8E1" box="[839,954,711,737]" name="Iceland" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">ISLAND</collectingCountry>
:
</emphasis>
no locality indicated, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50249C28FF7309A8E2" box="[1244,1344,712,738]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1974" valueMax="1983">1974-83</date>
, UPEI; 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5020D728D87765A909" bold="true" box="[151,300,751,777]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Prince Co.:</emphasis>
Freetown, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5021FF28C77418A90A" box="[447,593,752,778]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1991-07-31">31.VII.1991</date>
, M.E.M. Smith, potato field, (1, ACPE); 
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E50242A28D87343A909" bold="true" box="[1130,1290,751,777]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Queens Co.:</emphasis>
Cavendish, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E5020D7292F7760A932" box="[151,297,792,818]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="2002-07-14">14.VII.2002</date>
, C.G. Majka, coastal lagoon, (1, CGMC); Charlottetown, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E502397292F7216A932" box="[983,1119,792,818]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1957-06-12">12.VI.1957</date>
, F.M. Cannon, (1, ACPE); Charlottetown, 
<date id="FFAA8FA6C01B9E50210D2977779CA95A" box="[333,469,832,858]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" value="1982-06-18">18.VI.1982</date>
, L.S. Thompson, (1, ACPE).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C30EFAEDC01B9E50208629507255AE9A" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" type="distribution">
<paragraph id="8BABA966C01B9E50208629507255AE9A" blockId="9.[151,1436,151,1178]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E502086295074FFA981" bold="true" box="[198,694,871,897]" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Distribution in the Maritime Provinces.</emphasis>
The distribution of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5023E3295F720CA981" box="[931,1093,872,897]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5023E3295F720CA981" box="[931,1093,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in the Maritime Provinces is indicated in 
<figureCitation id="132FB5E3C01B9E50216829A77727A9AA" box="[296,366,912,938]" captionStart="FIGURE 3" captionStartId="13.[151,255,1576,1600]" captionTargetBox="[186,1417,531,1518]" captionTargetId="figure@13.[151,1436,514,1552]" captionTargetPageId="13" captionText="FIGURE 3. Distribution of Cassida rubiginosa and Cassida flaveola in the Maritime Provinces of Canada." httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/182784/files/figure.png" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Fig. 3</figureCitation>
. It is newly recorded in both Nova 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01B9E50234B29A7751DA9AA" box="[779,852,912,938]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Scotia</collectingCountry>
(commencing in 1948) and Prince Edward Island (commencing in 1957). Although the distribution of the species within Nova 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01B9E50245E298F722EA9D2" box="[1054,1127,952,978]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Scotia</collectingCountry>
and Prince Edward Island is somewhat uneven, it appears broadly distributed in appropriate open habitats, given the uneven past collecting effort in the region. Collecting of 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5022182E3F7491AE22" box="[600,728,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Coleoptera</taxonomicName>
in New Brunswick has been particularly spare and uneven, so further fieldwork there is required to determine if it occurs beyond the southeastern portion of the province where it has been recorded. In some portions of Nova 
<collectingCountry id="F303E9F6C01B9E5023702E6F7535AE72" box="[816,892,1112,1138]" name="United Kingdom" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Scotia</collectingCountry>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5023CA2E6F7267AE71" box="[906,1070,1112,1137]" class="Insecta" family="Chrysomelidae" genus="Cassida" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rubiginosa">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5023CA2E6F7267AE71" box="[906,1070,1112,1137]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">C. rubiginosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
co-occurs on thistles with the adventive leaf beetle, 
<taxonomicName id="4C14D2E5C01B9E5021D82EB774F6AE99" box="[408,703,1152,1177]" class="Sordariomycetes" family="Ceratostomataceae" genus="Sphaeroderma" kingdom="Fungi" order="Melanosporales" pageId="9" pageNumber="46" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="testaceum">
<emphasis id="B9607574C01B9E5021D82EB774F6AE99" box="[408,703,1152,1177]" italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="46">Sphaeroderma testaceum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(F.) (
<bibRefCitation id="EF85D497C01B9E5022BF2EB77259AE9A" author="Majka" box="[767,1040,1152,1178]" pageId="9" pageNumber="53" refString="Majka, C. G. &amp; LeSage, L. (2006) Introduced leaf beetles of the Maritime Provinces, 1: Sphaeroderma testaceum (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 108, 243 - 247." type="journal article" year="2006">Majka &amp; LeSage 2006</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>