treatments-xml/data/03/C3/87/03C3878DFFFFB319FCB3FC9923AF4F69.xml

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<mods:title>A review of the systematic biology of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes, Osteoglossomorpha (Actinopterygii: Teleostei)</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart>Hilton, Eric J.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart>Lavoué, Sébastien</mods:namePart>
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<mods:title>Neotropical Ichthyology</mods:title>
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<mods:date>2018</mods:date>
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<mods:number>2018-10-11</mods:number>
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<subSubSection pageId="1" pageNumber="2" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph blockId="1.[813,1452,753,1417]" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">
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<heading pageId="1" pageNumber="2">
† 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[861,1013,785,809]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
and other Stem-Group Osteoglossomorpha
</heading>
.
</emphasis>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="4" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" type="description">
<paragraph blockId="1.[813,1452,753,1417]" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">
† 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bardack &amp; Sprinkle" authorityYear="1969" box="[926,1139,817,841]" class="Actinopterygii" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Ichthyodectiformes" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" phylum="Chordata" rank="order">Ichthyodectiformes</taxonomicName>
, a group of predatory Jurassic and Cretaceous fishes (
<bibRefCitation author="Cavin" box="[1058,1254,849,873]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Cavin" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="115 - 77" refId="ref20404" refString="Cavin L, Forey PL, Giersch S. Osteology of Eubiodectes libanicus (Pictet &amp; Humbert, 1866) and some other ichthyodectiformes (Teleostei): phylogenetic implications. J Syst Palaeontol [serial on the Internet]. 2013; 11 (2): 115 - 77. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 14772019.2012.691559" type="journal article" year="2013">
Cavin 
<emphasis box="[1130,1178,849,873]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">et al</emphasis>
., 2013
</bibRefCitation>
), had been closely associated with Osteoglossomorpha (
<emphasis box="[1211,1242,882,905]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">e.g</emphasis>
., potentially within Osteoglossomorpha by 
<bibRefCitation author="Greenwood" box="[1074,1344,913,937]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Greenwood" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="339 - 456" refId="ref21932" refString="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966; 131 (4): 339 - 456." type="journal article" year="1966">
Greenwood 
<emphasis box="[1211,1269,913,937]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">et al.</emphasis>
, 1966
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation author="Taverne" firstAuthor="Taverne" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="1 - 168" refId="ref28048" refString="Taverne L. Osteologie, phylogenese et systematique des teleosteens fossiles et actuels du super ordre des Osteoglossomorphes. Troisieme partie. Evolution des structures osteologiques et conclusions generales relatives a la phylogenese et a la systematique du super ordre. Acad Roy Belg Mem Cl Sci. 1979; 43 (3): 1 - 168. (Collection 8, Serie 2)" type="journal article" year="1979">Taverne, 1979</bibRefCitation>
), due in part to general body form and superficial similarity. It was shown by 
<bibRefCitation author="Patterson, Rosen" box="[1086,1344,977,1001]" firstAuthor="Patterson" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="81 - 172" refId="ref26339" refString="Patterson C, Rosen DE. Review of ichthyodectiform and other Mesozoic teleost fishes and the theory and practice of classifying fossils. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1977; 158 (2): 81 - 172." type="journal article" year="1977">Patterson, Rosen (1977)</bibRefCitation>
, however, that † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bardack &amp; Sprinkle" authorityYear="1969" box="[875,1085,1009,1033]" class="Actinopterygii" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Ichthyodectiformes" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" phylum="Chordata" rank="order">Ichthyodectiformes</taxonomicName>
was best interpreted as a stem--group Teleostei, phylogenetically separate from Osteoglossomorpha, and this has been supported in recent analyses of relationships among basal teleostean fishes (
<emphasis box="[1324,1355,1106,1129]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">e.g</emphasis>
., 
<bibRefCitation author="Arratia" firstAuthor="Arratia" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="5 - 168" refId="ref18658" refString="Arratia G. Basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny. Palaeo Ichthyol. 1997; 7: 5 - 168." type="journal article" year="1997">Arratia 1997</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Arratia G" box="[879,935,1137,1161]" editor="Arratia G &amp; Schultze H-P" journalOrPublisher="Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="265 - 334" refId="ref18678" refString="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2: Systematics and Fossil Record. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1999. p. 265 - 334." title="The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements" type="book chapter" volumeTitle="Mesozoic Fishes 2: Systematics and Fossil Record" year="1999">1999</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Arratia, G" box="[946,1004,1137,1161]" editor="Cavin L &amp; Longbottom A &amp; Richter M" journalOrPublisher="London: Geological Society" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="71 - 92" part="295" refId="ref18755" refString="Arratia, G. The vasarichthyid and other crossognathiform fishes, and the break-up of Pangea. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 71 - 92. (Special Publications; 295)." title="The vasarichthyid and other crossognathiform fishes, and the break-up of Pangea" type="journal article" volumeTitle="Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea" year="2008">2008</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="1.[813,1452,753,1417]" lastBlockId="2.[820,1459,176,393]" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="3" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">
Members of † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[998,1140,1169,1193]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
(
<figureCitation box="[1155,1217,1169,1193]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="1.[129,168,1946,1970]" captionTargetBox="[129,1452,1474,1930]" captionTargetId="figure@1.[129,1452,1474,1930]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="Fig. 1. †Lycopteridae. Lycoptera davidi, Early Cretaceous, China (UMA F10652; 110 mm SL). Scale bar = 2 cm." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709905" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709905/files/figure.png" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Fig. 1</figureCitation>
) are a group of generalized, plesiomorphic osteoglossomorph fishes. According to 
<bibRefCitation author="Nelson" box="[841,1061,1233,1257]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Nelson" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" refId="ref25896" refString="Nelson JS, Grande TC, Wilson MVH. Fishes of the world. 5 th ed. Hoboken (NJ): J. Wiley; 2016." type="book" year="2016">
Nelson 
<emphasis box="[925,980,1233,1257]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">et al.</emphasis>
(2016)
</bibRefCitation>
, three genera are included in the family († 
<emphasis box="[895,1002,1266,1289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Lycoptera</emphasis>
, † 
<emphasis box="[1034,1195,1265,1289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Jiuquanichthys</emphasis>
, and † 
<emphasis box="[1277,1435,1265,1289]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Kuyangichthys</emphasis>
), although 
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" box="[911,1056,1297,1321]" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang (2006)</bibRefCitation>
found the relationships of all of these basal genera to be largely unresolved along the stem of Osteoglossomorpha. The recently described monotypic genus † 
<emphasis box="[826,982,1393,1417]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Kokuraichthys</emphasis>
from the Early Cretaceous of 
<collectingCountry box="[1306,1367,1393,1416]" name="Japan" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Japan</collectingCountry>
was interpreted to be either a member of † 
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Chang, Chou" baseAuthorityYear="1977" box="[513,692,176,200]" class="Actinopterygii" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lycopteriformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="order">Lycopteriformes</taxonomicName>
(co-extensive with † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[285,429,208,232]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
) or Hiodontiformes (
<bibRefCitation author="Yabumoto" firstAuthor="Yabumoto" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" pagination="67 - 72" refId="ref29274" refString="Yabumoto Y. Kokuraichthys tokuriki n. gen. and sp., Early Cretaceous osteoglossomorph fish in Kyushu, Japan. Bull Kitakyushu Mus Nat Hist Human Hist. 2013; 11: 67 - 72. (serie A)." type="journal article" year="2013">Yabumoto, 2013</bibRefCitation>
). A number of possible stem-group osteoglossomorphs have been identified, but not assigned to a specific family (including some taxa included within † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[568,715,304,328]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
). Without exception, these fishes come from Early Cretaceous deposits in Asia, primarily 
<collectingCountry box="[447,514,368,392]" name="China" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">China</collectingCountry>
. Included among these taxa are † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ma &amp; Sun" authorityYear="1988" box="[922,1057,176,200]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Actinopterygii (awaiting allocation)" genus="Jinanichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Actinopterygii (awaiting allocation)" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[922,1057,176,200]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Jinanichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Ma Fengchen" authorityYear="1980" box="[1083,1244,176,200]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" genus="Tongxinichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[1083,1244,176,200]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Tongxinichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<figureCitation box="[1257,1334,176,201]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="2.[136,175,1883,1907]" captionTargetBox="[142,1449,453,1864]" captionTargetId="figure@2.[133,1461,439,1870]" captionTargetPageId="2" captionText="Fig. 2. Stem-group Osteoglossomorpha. Reconstructions of a. †Tongxinichthys microdus (modified from Zhang, Jin, 1999: fig. 2), b. †Kuntulunia longipterus (modified from Zhang, 1998: fig. 11), and c. †Tanolepis ningjiagouensis (modified from Jin, 1991: fig. 1; note that †Tanolepis has been suggested to be a synonym of †Paralycoptera)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709907" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709907/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Fig. 2a</figureCitation>
; see Zhang, Jin, 1999), and † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Zhang" authorityYear="2004" box="[999,1131,208,232]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossiformes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Xixiaichthys" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[999,1131,208,232]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Xixiaichthys</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709905" ID-Zenodo-Dep="3709905" box="[129,1338,1946,1970]" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709905/files/figure.png" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" startId="1.[129,168,1946,1970]" targetBox="[129,1452,1474,1930]" targetPageId="1">
<paragraph blockId="1.[129,1338,1946,1970]" box="[129,1338,1946,1970]" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">
<emphasis bold="true" box="[129,199,1946,1970]" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Fig. 1.</emphasis>
† 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[216,361,1946,1970]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="1" pageNumber="2" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
. 
<emphasis box="[371,552,1946,1970]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="2">Lycoptera davidi</emphasis>
, Early Cretaceous, China (UMA F10652; 110 mm SL). Scale bar = 2 cm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph blockId="2.[820,1459,176,393]" lastBlockId="3.[129,768,176,1352]" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="4" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">
The group † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Chang &amp; Chow" authorityYear="1974" box="[993,1083,240,264]" class="Osteichthyes (awaiting allocation)" family="Osteichthyes (awaiting allocation)" genus="Huashia" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteichthyes (awaiting allocation)" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[993,1083,240,264]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Huashia</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
+ † 
<emphasis box="[1130,1250,240,264]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Kuntulunia</emphasis>
(
<figureCitation box="[1267,1347,240,264]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="2.[136,175,1883,1907]" captionTargetBox="[142,1449,453,1864]" captionTargetId="figure@2.[133,1461,439,1870]" captionTargetPageId="2" captionText="Fig. 2. Stem-group Osteoglossomorpha. Reconstructions of a. †Tongxinichthys microdus (modified from Zhang, Jin, 1999: fig. 2), b. †Kuntulunia longipterus (modified from Zhang, 1998: fig. 11), and c. †Tanolepis ningjiagouensis (modified from Jin, 1991: fig. 1; note that †Tanolepis has been suggested to be a synonym of †Paralycoptera)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709907" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709907/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">Fig. 2b</figureCitation>
) has been interpreted as both a stem-group (
<emphasis box="[1179,1210,273,296]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">e.g</emphasis>
., unresolved node with Hiodontiformes and all other osteoglossomorphs; 
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang, 2006</bibRefCitation>
), sister to Notopteroidei + 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[1200,1361,336,360]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="2" pageNumber="3" pagination="280 - 300" refId="ref29529" refString="Zhang J-Y. Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of Kuntulunia (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha). J Vertebr Paleontol [serial on the Internet]. 1998; 18 (2): 280 - 300. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 02724634.1998.10011057" type="journal article" year="1998">Zhang, 1998</bibRefCitation>
), or as more closely related to Arapaiminae (
<emphasis box="[1371,1402,369,392]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="3">e.g</emphasis>
., based in part on preopercular and opercular shape; 
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="369 - 384" refId="ref24554" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. Early divergence of Hiodontiformes sensu stricto in East Asia and phylogeny of some Late Mesozoic teleosts from China. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic fishes 2: systematics and fossil record. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1999. p. 369 - 384." type="book chapter" year="1999">Li, Wilson, 1999</bibRefCitation>
). Similarly, † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Chang &amp; Chow" authorityYear="1974" box="[343,497,208,232]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Paralycoptera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[343,497,208,232]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Paralycoptera</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, from the Early Cretaceous (or possibly Late Jurassic as well; 
<bibRefCitation author="Tse" box="[565,731,240,264]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Tse" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="865" refId="ref28503" refString="Tse TK, Pittman M, Chang M-M. A specimen of Paralycoptera Chang &amp; Chou 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from Hong Kong (China) with a potential Late Jurassic age that extends the temporal and geographical range of the genus. PeerJ [serial on the Internet]. 2015; 3: e 865. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.7717 / peerj. 865" type="journal article" year="2015">
Tse 
<emphasis box="[609,663,240,264]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">et al.</emphasis>
, 2015
</bibRefCitation>
) of 
<collectingCountry box="[129,195,272,296]" name="China" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">China</collectingCountry>
, was initially described as a member of † 
<taxonomicName class="Actinopterygii" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lycopteriformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="order">Lycopteriformes</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation author="Chang M-M &amp; Chou C-C" box="[216,426,304,329]" journalOrPublisher="Mem Inst Vertebr Palaeontol Palaeoanthrop." pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="1 - 60" part="12" refId="ref20501" refString="Chang M-M, Chou C-C. [On Late Mesozoic fossil fishes from Zhejiang Province, China]. Mem Inst Vertebr Palaeontol Palaeoanthrop. 1977; 12: 1 - 60. [in Chinese, with English summary]." title="On Late Mesozoic fossil fishes from Zhejiang Province, China" type="journal article" year="1977">Chang, Chou, 1977</bibRefCitation>
); † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Jin" authorityYear="1994" box="[458,561,304,328]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Hiodontidae" genus="Tanolepis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[458,561,304,328]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Tanolepis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<figureCitation box="[574,651,304,329]" captionStart="Fig" captionStartId="2.[136,175,1883,1907]" captionTargetBox="[142,1449,453,1864]" captionTargetId="figure@2.[133,1461,439,1870]" captionTargetPageId="2" captionText="Fig. 2. Stem-group Osteoglossomorpha. Reconstructions of a. †Tongxinichthys microdus (modified from Zhang, Jin, 1999: fig. 2), b. †Kuntulunia longipterus (modified from Zhang, 1998: fig. 11), and c. †Tanolepis ningjiagouensis (modified from Jin, 1991: fig. 1; note that †Tanolepis has been suggested to be a synonym of †Paralycoptera)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3709907" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/3709907/files/figure.png" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Fig. 2c</figureCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation author="Jin" box="[662,759,304,329]" firstAuthor="Jin" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="46 - 54" refId="ref23251" refString="Jin F. A new genus and species of Hiodontidae from Xintai, Shandong. Vert PalAs. 1991; 29 (1): 46 - 54. [In Chinese with an English summary]." type="journal article" year="1991">Jin, 1991</bibRefCitation>
) is either a synonym (
<bibRefCitation author="Jin" box="[359,527,336,360]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Jin" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="169 - 93" refId="ref23289" refString="Jin F, Zhang J, Zhou Z. Late Mesozoic fish fauna from western Liaoning, China. Vert PalAs, 1995; 33 (3): 169 - 93. [In Chinese with an English summary]." type="journal article" year="1995">
Jin 
<emphasis box="[401,456,336,360]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">et al.</emphasis>
, 1995
</bibRefCitation>
; 
<bibRefCitation author="Xu, Chang" box="[541,729,336,361]" firstAuthor="Xu" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="83 - 106" refId="ref29205" refString="Xu GH, Chang MM. Redescription of Paralycoptera wui Chang &amp; Chou, 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from the Early Cretaceous of eastern China. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2009; 157 (1): 83 - 106. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2009.00532. x" type="journal article" year="2009">Xu, Chang, 2009</bibRefCitation>
) or sister-group (
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" box="[270,452,368,393]" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="369 - 384" refId="ref24554" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. Early divergence of Hiodontiformes sensu stricto in East Asia and phylogeny of some Late Mesozoic teleosts from China. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic fishes 2: systematics and fossil record. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1999. p. 369 - 384." type="book chapter" year="1999">Li, Wilson, 1999</bibRefCitation>
) of † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Chang &amp; Chow" authorityYear="1974" box="[509,663,368,392]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Paralycoptera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[509,663,368,392]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Paralycoptera</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. 
<bibRefCitation author="Ma F-Z &amp; Sun J-R" journalOrPublisher="Acta Palaeont Sin." pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="694 - 711" part="27" refId="ref24944" refString="Ma F-Z, Sun J-R. Jura-Cretaceous ichthyofaunas from the Sankeyushu section of Tonghua, Jilin. Acta Palaeont Sin. 1988; 27 (6): 694 - 711. [In Chinese with English Summary]." title="Jura-Cretaceous ichthyofaunas from the Sankeyushu section of Tonghua, Jilin" type="journal article" year="1988">Ma, Sun (1988)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation author="Jin" box="[255,430,400,424]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Jin" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="169 - 93" refId="ref23289" refString="Jin F, Zhang J, Zhou Z. Late Mesozoic fish fauna from western Liaoning, China. Vert PalAs, 1995; 33 (3): 169 - 93. [In Chinese with an English summary]." type="journal article" year="1995">
Jin 
<emphasis box="[295,351,400,424]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">et al.</emphasis>
(1995)
</bibRefCitation>
suggested that it possessed reticulate scales, indicating an affinity to 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" baseAuthorityName="Zhang" baseAuthorityYear="1998" box="[560,721,432,456]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
(although concluding that† 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Chang &amp; Chow" authorityYear="1974" box="[406,560,464,488]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Paralycoptera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[406,560,464,488]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Paralycoptera</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was within crown 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[129,293,496,520]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" box="[308,447,496,520]" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang, 2006</bibRefCitation>
noted differences in the details of the pattern of reticulation between the two groups). However, 
<bibRefCitation author="Xu, Chang" box="[239,429,560,585]" firstAuthor="Xu" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="83 - 106" refId="ref29205" refString="Xu GH, Chang MM. Redescription of Paralycoptera wui Chang &amp; Chou, 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from the Early Cretaceous of eastern China. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2009; 157 (1): 83 - 106. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2009.00532. x" type="journal article" year="2009">Xu, Chang (2009</bibRefCitation>
: figs. 8c,d) studied and illustrated very well preserved specimens that preserved the details of the scales, and show that these do not bear any furrows, but rather are large cycloid scales with fine circuli and a few radii (and are similar in overall form to the scales of 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Peters" authorityYear="1876" baseAuthorityName="Hilton" baseAuthorityYear="2003" class="Actinopterygii" family="Pantodontidae" genus="Pantodon" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Pantodon</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
; 
<bibRefCitation author="Hilton" box="[184,323,720,745]" firstAuthor="Hilton" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="1 - 100" refId="ref22345" refString="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2003; 137 (1): 1 - 100. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1096 - 3642.2003.00032. x" type="journal article" year="2003">Hilton, 2003</bibRefCitation>
: fig. 39d). 
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" box="[440,632,720,745]" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="369 - 384" refId="ref24554" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. Early divergence of Hiodontiformes sensu stricto in East Asia and phylogeny of some Late Mesozoic teleosts from China. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic fishes 2: systematics and fossil record. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1999. p. 369 - 384." type="book chapter" year="1999">Li, Wilson (1999)</bibRefCitation>
recovered it as sister to Osteoglossoidei (sharing similarities in the position and angle of the jaw and six hypurals), 
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" box="[621,767,784,808]" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang (2006)</bibRefCitation>
found it to be within crown-group 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[504,665,816,840]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
(sister to 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Nelson" authorityYear="1968" box="[129,290,848,872]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Osteoglossinae">Osteoglossinae</taxonomicName>
+ †Phareodontinae; supported only by homoplasies), and 
<bibRefCitation author="Xu, Chang" box="[310,513,880,905]" firstAuthor="Xu" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="83 - 106" refId="ref29205" refString="Xu GH, Chang MM. Redescription of Paralycoptera wui Chang &amp; Chou, 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from the Early Cretaceous of eastern China. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2009; 157 (1): 83 - 106. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2009.00532. x" type="journal article" year="2009">Xu, Chang (2009)</bibRefCitation>
, who found this genus to be intercalated between Mormyroidea and all fossil and living 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Bonaparte" authorityYear="1831" box="[199,360,944,968]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Osteoglossidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Osteoglossidae</taxonomicName>
(sharing with the latter the condition of having the entire post- and suborbital region of the palatoquadrate covered by the infraorbitals). 
<bibRefCitation author="Wilson, Murray" firstAuthor="Wilson" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="185 - 219" refId="ref29139" refString="Wilson MVH, Murray AM. Osteoglossomorpha: phylogeny, biogeography, and fossil record and the significance of key African and Chinese fossil taxa. In: Cavin L, Longbottom A, Richter M, editors. Fishes and the Break-up of Pangea. London: Geological Society; 2008. p. 185 - 219. (Special Publications; 295)." type="journal article" year="2008">Wilson, Murray (2008</bibRefCitation>
; also 
<bibRefCitation author="Murray" box="[257,471,1040,1065]" etAl="et al." firstAuthor="Murray" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="322 - 32" refId="ref25525" refString="Murray AM, You HL, Peng C. A New Cretaceous osteoglossomorph fish from Gansu Province, China. J Vertebr Paleontol [serial on the Internet]. 2010; 30 (2): 322 - 32. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 02724631003621961" type="journal article" year="2010">
Murray 
<emphasis box="[345,400,1040,1064]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">et al.</emphasis>
, 2010
</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Murray" box="[483,540,1041,1065]" firstAuthor="Murray" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="907 - 44" refId="ref25579" refString="Murray AM, Zelenitsky DK, Brinkman DB, Neuman AG. Two new Palaeocene osteoglossomorphs from Canada, with a reassessment of the relationships of the genus Joffrichthys, and analysis of diversity from articulated versus microfossil material. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2018; 183 (4): 907 - 44. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1093 / zoolinnean / zlx 100" type="journal article" year="2018">2018</bibRefCitation>
), in contrast, recovered † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Chang &amp; Chow" authorityYear="1974" box="[182,336,1072,1096]" class="Actinopterygii" genus="Paralycoptera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[182,336,1072,1096]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Paralycoptera</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
+ † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Jin" authorityYear="1994" box="[377,480,1072,1096]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Hiodontidae" genus="Tanolepis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">
<emphasis box="[377,480,1072,1096]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Tanolepis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
as a stem group osteoglossomorph, just above the level of † 
<emphasis box="[497,604,1105,1128]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="4">Lycoptera</emphasis>
. For details on the history of phylogenetic hypotheses for these and other stem-group osteoglossomorphs, including synapomorphies supporting the various hypotheses, the reader is referred to 
<bibRefCitation author="Shen" box="[158,294,1232,1256]" firstAuthor="Shen" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="261 - 272" refId="ref27001" refString="Shen M. Fossil &quot; osteoglossomorphs &quot; from East Asia and their implications for teleostean phylogeny. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes: Systematics and Paleoecology. Munchen: Verlag Pfeil; 1996. p. 261 - 272." type="book chapter" year="1996">Shen (1996)</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Li, Wilson" box="[307,504,1232,1257]" firstAuthor="Li" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="369 - 384" refId="ref24554" refString="Li G-Q, Wilson MVH. Early divergence of Hiodontiformes sensu stricto in East Asia and phylogeny of some Late Mesozoic teleosts from China. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic fishes 2: systematics and fossil record. Munchen: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1999. p. 369 - 384." type="book chapter" year="1999">Li, Wilson (1999)</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation author="Zhang" box="[517,668,1232,1256]" firstAuthor="Zhang" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="43 - 59" refId="ref29578" refString="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert PalAs. 2006; 44 (1): 43 - 59." type="journal article" year="2006">Zhang (2006)</bibRefCitation>
, and 
<bibRefCitation author="Xu, Chang" firstAuthor="Xu" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" pagination="83 - 106" refId="ref29205" refString="Xu GH, Chang MM. Redescription of Paralycoptera wui Chang &amp; Chou, 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from the Early Cretaceous of eastern China. Zool J Linn Soc [serial on the Internet]. 2009; 157 (1): 83 - 106. Available from: https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2009.00532. x" type="journal article" year="2009">Xu, Chang (2009)</bibRefCitation>
. A full taxonomic and phylogenetic review, however, of many of these fishes, including those that were historically included in † 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Liu, Su, Huang &amp; Chang" authorityYear="1963" box="[392,537,1328,1352]" class="Actinopterygii" family="Lycopteridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Osteoglossiformes" pageId="3" pageNumber="4" phylum="Chordata" rank="family">Lycopteridae</taxonomicName>
, is needed.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>