304 lines
28 KiB
XML
304 lines
28 KiB
XML
<document ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331155" ID-GBIF-Dataset="a7d8d69c-0188-4a74-b785-432bf1c60c9e" ID-ISBN="978-84-96553-49-1" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6331155" checkinTime="1646522525642" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2009" docId="03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Canis lupus Linnaeus 1758" docType="treatment" docVersion="12" lastPageNumber="413" masterDocId="FF95B738BF37FFC97E1BFF90FFDBDD06" masterDocTitle="Canidae" masterLastPageNumber="446" masterPageNumber="352" pageNumber="413" updateTime="1666622464231" updateUser="conny">
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<mods:mods xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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<mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:title>Canidae</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:name type="personal">
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<mods:role>
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<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
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</mods:role>
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<mods:namePart>Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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</mods:name>
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<mods:name type="personal">
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<mods:role>
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<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
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</mods:role>
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<mods:namePart>Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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</mods:name>
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<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
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<mods:relatedItem type="host">
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<mods:originInfo>
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<mods:dateIssued>2009</mods:dateIssued>
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<mods:dateOther type="pubDate">2009-01-31</mods:dateOther>
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<mods:publisher>Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
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<mods:place>
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<mods:placeTerm>Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
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</mods:place>
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</mods:originInfo>
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<mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:title>Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:part>
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<mods:extent unit="page">
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<mods:start>352</mods:start>
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<mods:end>446</mods:end>
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</mods:extent>
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</mods:part>
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</mods:relatedItem>
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<mods:classification>book chapter</mods:classification>
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<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331155</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="GBIF-Dataset">a7d8d69c-0188-4a74-b785-432bf1c60c9e</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="ISBN">978-84-96553-49-1</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="Zenodo-Dep">6331155</mods:identifier>
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</mods:mods>
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<treatment ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6585139" ID-GBIF-Taxon="195656999" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6585139" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F" lastPageNumber="413" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<subSubSection box="[144,173,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="multiple">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,837,430,554]" box="[144,173,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<heading box="[144,173,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<figureCitation box="[144,173,430,476]" captionStart="Plate 21: Canidae" captionStartId="4.[140,170,3441,3462]" captionTargetBox="[13,2795,13,3636]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="1. Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331233" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6331233/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">1.</figureCitation>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection box="[191,400,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,837,430,554]" box="[191,400,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<heading box="[191,400,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<vernacularName box="[191,400,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Gray Wolf</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection box="[414,638,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,837,430,554]" box="[414,638,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<heading box="[414,638,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[414,638,430,476]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lupus">
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<emphasis box="[414,638,430,476]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Canis lupus</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,837,430,554]" box="[141,654,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<heading box="[141,654,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[141,218,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">French:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[227,317,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Loup gris</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis box="[339,429,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">German:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[438,484,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Wolf</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis box="[505,596,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Spanish:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[606,654,494,515]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Lobo</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,837,430,554]" box="[141,836,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<heading box="[141,836,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[141,386,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Other common names:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName box="[395,443,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Wolf</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName box="[455,579,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Timber Wolf</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName box="[591,713,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Tundra Wolf</vernacularName>
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,
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<vernacularName box="[725,836,533,554]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Arctic Wolf</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[755,1342,609,1027]" box="[756,1339,609,634]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[756,911,609,634]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
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<taxonomicName authority="Linnaeus, 1758" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[934,1335,609,634]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lupus">Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758</taxonomicName>
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,
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="2.[755,1342,609,1027]" box="[757,870,639,672]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<materialsCitation ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3784256323" box="[757,870,639,672]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<collectingCountry box="[757,867,639,672]" name="Sweden" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Sweden</collectingCountry>
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.
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</materialsCitation>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="materials_examined">
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<paragraph blockId="2.[755,1342,609,1027]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia.
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<taxonomicName box="[684,845,1038,1067]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lycaon">Canis lycaon</taxonomicName>
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has been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to
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<collectingCountry box="[865,989,1112,1145]" name="Australia" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Australia</collectingCountry>
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by Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as
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<taxonomicName class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="antarticus">C. antarticus</taxonomicName>
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or
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<taxonomicName box="[252,491,1195,1224]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="familiaris" subSpecies="dingo">C. familiaris dingo</taxonomicName>
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. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="discussion">
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<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331161" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6331161" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6331161/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" startId="2.[206,275,1387,1420]" targetBox="[141,725,610,1020]" targetPageId="2">
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<paragraph box="[141,540,1352,1381]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[141,540,1352,1381]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph blockId="2.[139,714,1375,1427]" box="[142,714,1394,1427]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Linnaeus, 1758" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[142,496,1394,1427]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lupus">C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758</taxonomicName>
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- Asia, Europe.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,582,1431,1460]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Kerr, 1792" authorityName="Kerr" authorityYear="1792" box="[142,421,1431,1460]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="albus">C. l. albus Kerr, 1792</taxonomicName>
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— N
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<collectingCountry box="[490,579,1431,1460]" name="Russia" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Russia</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,815,1473,1499]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Pocock, 1935" authorityName="Pocock" authorityYear="1935" box="[142,467,1473,1499]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="arctos">C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935</taxonomicName>
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— Canadian High Arctic.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,1215,1509,1538]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Nelson & Goldman, 1929" authorityName="Nelson & Goldman" authorityYear="1929" box="[142,646,1509,1538]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="baileyi">C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929</taxonomicName>
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—
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<collectingCountry box="[682,786,1509,1538]" name="Mexico" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Mexico</collectingCountry>
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, SW
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<collectingCountry box="[857,920,1509,1538]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
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(extinct in the wild).
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,726,1549,1578]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Dwigubski, 1804" authorityName="Dwigubski" authorityYear="1804" box="[142,568,1549,1578]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="communis">C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804</taxonomicName>
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— C
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<collectingCountry box="[633,722,1549,1578]" name="Russia" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Russia</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,677,1591,1617]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Ognev, 1923" authorityName="Ognev" authorityYear="1923" box="[142,522,1591,1617]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="cubanensis">C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923</taxonomicName>
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— E-C Asia.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,814,1627,1656]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Meyer, 1793" authorityName="Meyer" authorityYear="1793" box="[142,450,1627,1656]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="dingo">C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793</taxonomicName>
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— SE Asia and Australasia.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,825,1667,1696]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Schreber, 1775" authorityName="Schreber" authorityYear="1775" box="[142,498,1667,1696]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="lycaon">C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775</taxonomicName>
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— SE
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<collectingCountry box="[579,686,1667,1696]" name="Canada" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Canada</collectingCountry>
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, NE
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<collectingCountry box="[756,821,1667,1696]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,803,1701,1734]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Say, 1823" authorityName="Say" authorityYear="1823" box="[142,434,1701,1734]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="nubilus">C. l. nubilus Say, 1823</taxonomicName>
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— E-C
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<collectingCountry box="[527,633,1701,1734]" name="Canada" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Canada</collectingCountry>
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and C
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<collectingCountry box="[735,799,1701,1734]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,915,1749,1774]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Richardson, 1829" authorityName="Richardson" authorityYear="1829" box="[142,600,1749,1774]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="occidentalis">C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829</taxonomicName>
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— Alaska, NW
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<collectingCountry box="[804,911,1749,1774]" name="Canada" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Canada</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph box="[142,971,1785,1814]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<taxonomicName authority="Sykes, 1831" authorityName="Sykes" authorityYear="1831" box="[142,460,1785,1814]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="lupus" subSpecies="pallipes">C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831</taxonomicName>
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— Middle East and SW Asia to
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<collectingCountry box="[893,967,1785,1814]" name="India" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">India</collectingCountry>
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.
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</paragraph>
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</caption>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="description">
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<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[140,390,1824,1853]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
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Head-body
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<quantity box="[571,737,1824,1853]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.15" metricValueMax="1.3" metricValueMin="1.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="cm" value="115.0" valueMax="130.0" valueMin="100.0">100-130 cm</quantity>
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for males and
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<quantity box="[957,1108,1824,1853]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.02" metricValueMax="1.17" metricValueMin="0.8699999999999999" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="cm" value="102.0" valueMax="117.0" valueMin="87.0">87-117 cm</quantity>
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for females, tail
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||
<quantity box="[141,272,1867,1892]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.6" metricValueMax="5.2" metricValueMin="4.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="cm" value="46.0" valueMax="52.0" valueMin="40.0">40-52 cm</quantity>
|
||
for males and
|
||
<quantity box="[483,614,1867,1892]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.25" metricValueMax="5.0" metricValueMin="3.5" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="cm" value="42.5" valueMax="50.0" valueMin="35.0">35-50 cm</quantity>
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||
for females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to
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||
<quantity box="[355,430,1903,1932]" metricMagnitude="1" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="6.2" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="kg" value="62.0">62 kg</quantity>
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||
. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="biology_ecology">
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<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[140,251,2103,2128]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Habitat.</emphasis>
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All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="food_feeding">
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<paragraph lastBlockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
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<emphasis box="[140,415,2257,2286]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
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Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer
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<taxonomicName box="[533,768,2291,2324]" class="Mammalia" family="Cervidae" genus="Rangifer" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Artiodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="tarandus">Rangifer tarandus</taxonomicName>
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, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from
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<quantity box="[344,427,2414,2443]" metricMagnitude="2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="m" value="100.0">100 m</quantity>
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to more than
|
||
<quantity box="[641,711,2414,2443]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="5.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="km" value="5.0">5 km</quantity>
|
||
are the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6-
|
||
<quantity box="[303,363,2532,2561]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="3.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="kg" value="3.0">3 kg</quantity>
|
||
or more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey
|
||
<typeStatus box="[1870,1938,370,399]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">types</typeStatus>
|
||
and over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2103,2227,405,438]" name="Australia" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
composed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[1816,2100,566,595]" class="Mammalia" family="Leporidae" genus="Oryctolagus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lagomorpha" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="cuniculus">Oryctolagus cuniculus</taxonomicName>
|
||
), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (
|
||
<taxonomicName box="[1835,2113,610,635]" class="Reptilia" family="Agamidae" genus="Ctenophorus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Squamata" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="nuchalis">Ctenophorus nuchalis</taxonomicName>
|
||
). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="activity">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
|
||
<emphasis box="[1411,1644,719,752]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
|
||
Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
|
||
<emphasis box="[1413,2130,837,870]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
|
||
Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of
|
||
<quantity box="[1507,1671,994,1027]" metricMagnitude="6" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.2875" metricValueMax="2.5" metricValueMin="0.075" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="km" value="1287.5" valueMax="2500.0" valueMin="75.0">75-2500 km</quantity>
|
||
* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (
|
||
<quantity box="[2383,2538,1117,1146]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.95" metricValueMax="3.0" metricValueMin="0.9" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="km" value="195.0" valueMax="300.0" valueMin="90.0">90-300 km</quantity>
|
||
?) occur in the deserts of south-western
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1908,2034,1156,1185]" name="Australia" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
. Elsewhere they range from
|
||
<quantity box="[2444,2598,1156,1185]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="6.15" metricValueMax="11.3" metricValueMin="1.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="km" value="61.5" valueMax="113.0" valueMin="10.0">10-113 km</quantity>
|
||
? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about
|
||
<quantity box="[1731,1835,1230,1263]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.5" pageId="2" pageNumber="413" unit="km" value="250.0">250 km</quantity>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="breeding">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
|
||
<emphasis box="[1412,1546,1274,1303]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Breeding.</emphasis>
|
||
Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="conservation">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
|
||
<emphasis box="[1413,1760,1514,1539]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
|
||
CITES Appendix II, except populations from
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2412,2516,1514,1539]" name="Bhutan" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Bhutan</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2533,2607,1514,1539]" name="India" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
,
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1413,1498,1549,1578]" name="Nepal" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Nepal</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1581,1698,1549,1578]" name="Pakistan" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
|
||
, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2109,2215,1780,1813]" name="Canada" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Canada</collectingCountry>
|
||
and Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2286,2436,1824,1853]" name="Greenland" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Greenland</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2458,2598,1824,1853]" name="Denmark" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Denmark</collectingCountry>
|
||
). Endangered in north-west
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1792,1856,1864,1893]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2551,2614,1864,1893]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
range states. Highly endangered in
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1937,2042,1898,1931]" name="Mexico" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Mexico</collectingCountry>
|
||
. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia,
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2442,2546,2095,2128]" name="Mexico" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Mexico</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and the
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1466,1530,2134,2167]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[1909,1973,2261,2286]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
, and reintroduction in the western
|
||
<collectingCountry box="[2468,2533,2261,2286]" name="United States of America" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">USA</collectingCountry>
|
||
. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="413" type="bibRefCitation_list">
|
||
<paragraph blockId="2.[1410,2616,287,2601]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">
|
||
<emphasis box="[1413,1567,2457,2482]" pageId="2" pageNumber="413">Bibliography.</emphasis>
|
||
Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |