treatments-xml/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6.xml

<document ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331155" ID-ISBN="978-84-96553-49-1" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6331155" approvalRequired="1" approvalRequired_for_taxonomicNames="1" checkinTime="1646522525642" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson &amp; Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2009" docId="03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Pseudalopex culpaeus" docType="treatment" docVersion="9" lastPageNumber="429" masterDocId="FF95B738BF37FFC97E1BFF90FFDBDD06" masterDocTitle="Canidae" masterLastPageNumber="446" masterPageNumber="352" pageNumber="429" updateTime="1653592492572" updateUser="tatiana">
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<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Canidae</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
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<mods:originInfo>
<mods:dateIssued>2009</mods:dateIssued>
<mods:dateOther type="pubDate">2009-01-31</mods:dateOther>
<mods:publisher>Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
<mods:place>
<mods:placeTerm>Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
</mods:place>
</mods:originInfo>
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:part>
<mods:extent unit="page">
<mods:start>352</mods:start>
<mods:end>446</mods:end>
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<mods:classification>book chapter</mods:classification>
<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331155</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ISBN">978-84-96553-49-1</mods:identifier>
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<treatment LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6" lastPageNumber="429" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
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<heading box="[150,204,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<figureCitation box="[150,204,429,475]" captionStart="On" captionStartId="18.[139,169,3404,3425]" captionTargetBox="[14,2795,12,3635]" captionTargetPageId="17" captionText="On following pages: 16. South American Gray Fox (Pseudalopex griseus); 17. Pampas Fox (Pseudalopex gymnocercus); 18. Sechuran Fox (Pseudalopex sechurae); 19. Hoary Fox (Pseudalopex vetulus); 20. Northern Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus); 21. Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis)." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6331237" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6331237/files/figure.png" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">14.</figureCitation>
</heading>
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<subSubSection box="[222,372,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph blockId="18.[145,902,429,553]" box="[222,372,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<heading box="[222,372,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<vernacularName box="[222,372,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Culpeo</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection box="[386,791,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph blockId="18.[145,902,429,553]" box="[386,791,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<heading box="[386,791,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Molina" baseAuthorityYear="1782" box="[386,791,429,475]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="culpaeus">
<emphasis box="[386,791,429,475]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Pseudalopex culpaeus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph blockId="18.[145,902,429,553]" box="[146,902,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<heading box="[146,902,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[146,223,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[233,416,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Renard des Andes</vernacularName>
/ 
<emphasis box="[437,528,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[536,656,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Andenfuchs</vernacularName>
/ 
<emphasis box="[677,768,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[777,902,493,514]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Zorro andino</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[145,902,429,553]" box="[146,520,532,553]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<heading box="[146,520,532,553]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[146,392,532,553]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[401,520,532,553]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Andean Fox</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection box="[761,1344,608,633]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="reference_group">
<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" box="[761,1344,608,633]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[761,916,608,633]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName authorityName="Molina" authorityYear="1782" box="[937,1344,608,633]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="culpaeus">Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection box="[762,1112,647,672]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="materials_examined">
<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" box="[762,1112,647,672]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<materialsCitation box="[762,1112,647,672]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<collectingRegion box="[762,1015,647,672]" country="Chile" name="Region Metropolitana" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Santiago Province</collectingRegion>
, 
<collectingCountry box="[1032,1108,647,672]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
.
</materialsCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="discussion">
<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under 
<taxonomicName authorityName="C. E. H. Smith" authorityYear="1839" box="[1223,1339,761,790]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Dusicyon" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Dusicyon</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[764,836,801,830]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Canis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Canis</taxonomicName>
, and 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Burmeister" authorityYear="1854" box="[932,1055,801,830]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Lycalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lycalopex</taxonomicName>
. Six subspecies are recognized.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="synonymic_list">
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<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" box="[761,1160,875,908]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[761,1160,875,908]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName authority="Molina, 1782" authorityName="Molina" authorityYear="1782" box="[761,1119,915,948]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="culpaeus">P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782</taxonomicName>
— W &amp; C 
<collectingCountry name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
and C 
<collectingCountry box="[916,992,953,986]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[761,1348,608,1026]" lastBlockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName authority="Thomas, 1914" authorityName="Thomas" authorityYear="1914" box="[761,1143,993,1026]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="andinus">P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914</taxonomicName>
— altiplano of 
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, N 
<collectingCountry box="[290,366,1038,1063]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
, and 
<collectingCountry box="[444,511,1038,1063]" name="Peru" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Peru</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
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<taxonomicName authority="Philippi, 1895" authorityName="Philippi" authorityYear="1895" box="[145,499,1070,1103]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="lycoides">P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895</taxonomicName>
— 
<collectingRegion box="[534,771,1070,1103]" country="Argentina" name="Tierra del Fuego - Antartida e Islas del Atlantico Sur" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Tierra del Fuego</collectingRegion>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" box="[145,877,1110,1143]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName authority="Gray, 1837" authorityName="Gray" authorityYear="1837" box="[145,525,1110,1143]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="magellanicus">P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837</taxonomicName>
— 
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and S 
<collectingCountry box="[796,872,1110,1143]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" box="[145,1319,1154,1183]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName authority="Hilzheimer, 1906" authorityName="Hilzheimer" authorityYear="1906" box="[145,525,1154,1183]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="reissu">P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906</taxonomicName>
— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S 
<collectingCountry box="[1040,1177,1154,1183]" name="Colombia" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Colombia</collectingCountry>
(
<collectingRegion box="[1200,1305,1154,1183]" country="Colombia" name="Narino" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Narino</collectingRegion>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" box="[144,922,1197,1222]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<taxonomicName authority="Thomas, 1914" authorityName="Thomas" authorityYear="1914" box="[144,522,1197,1222]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="culpaeus" subSpecies="smithersi">P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914</taxonomicName>
— 
<collectingCountry box="[555,696,1197,1222]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
(Cordoba Mts).
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="description">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[143,393,1228,1261]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 44-5-92- 
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for males and 
<quantity box="[978,1112,1228,1261]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="6.9" metricValueMax="8.9" metricValueMin="4.9" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="cm" value="69.0" valueMax="89.0" valueMin="49.0">49-89 cm</quantity>
for females, tail 30-5-49- 
<quantity box="[264,332,1272,1301]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.0" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="cm" value="3.0">3 cm</quantity>
for males and 
<quantity box="[550,684,1272,1301]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.8" metricValueMax="4.5" metricValueMin="3.1" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="cm" value="38.0" valueMax="45.0" valueMin="31.0">31-45 cm</quantity>
for females; weight 3-4-13- 
<quantity box="[1078,1139,1272,1301]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="8.0" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="kg" value="8.0">8 kg</quantity>
for males and 3: 
<quantity box="[166,280,1307,1340]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="9.5" metricValueMax="10.0" metricValueMin="9.0" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="kg" value="9.5" valueMax="10.0" valueMin="9.0">9-10 kg</quantity>
for females. The largest fox in the genus 
<taxonomicName authorityName="Burmeister" authorityYear="1856" box="[879,1034,1307,1340]" class="Mammalia" family="Canidae" genus="Pseudalopex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Pseudalopex</taxonomicName>
. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[142,253,1704,1733]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Habitat.</emphasis>
The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of 
<collectingCountry box="[338,404,1857,1890]" name="Peru" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Peru</collectingCountry>
, 
<collectingCountry box="[424,500,1857,1890]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
, 
<collectingCountry box="[519,614,1857,1890]" name="Bolivia" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Bolivia</collectingCountry>
, and 
<collectingCountry box="[696,837,1857,1890]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
it reaches elevations of up to 
<quantity metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.8" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="m" value="4800.0">4800 m</quantity>
, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[141,409,1975,2008]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In 
<collectingCountry box="[771,912,2172,2205]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentine</collectingCountry>
Patagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central 
<collectingCountry box="[576,649,2250,2283]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
selected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="activity">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[138,371,2486,2519]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
In 
<collectingCountry box="[418,561,2486,2519]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland 
<collectingCountry box="[1275,1339,2486,2519]" name="Peru" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Peru</collectingCountry>
(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central 
<collectingCountry box="[950,1026,2565,2598]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 
<quantity box="[1028,1096,2604,2637]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="7.0" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="km" value="7.0">7 km</quantity>
in north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern 
<collectingCountry box="[849,922,2643,2676]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
have been recorded moving three times as far.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[139,846,2722,2755]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central 
<collectingCountry box="[708,784,2879,2912]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
, home ranges of females averaged 
<quantity metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="8.5" metricValueMax="9.0" metricValueMin="8.0" pageId="18" pageNumber="429" unit="km" value="8.5" valueMax="9.0" valueMin="8.0">8-9 km</quantity>
* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south 
<collectingCountry box="[682,756,2962,2991]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
) were only 
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? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 
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” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 
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? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="breeding">
<paragraph blockId="18.[138,1347,1038,3305]" lastBlockId="18.[1416,2625,289,1265]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[138,272,3115,3148]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Breeding.</emphasis>
In the Patagonian steppe of 
<collectingCountry box="[699,842,3115,3148]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 
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. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the 
<collectingRegion box="[1596,1726,332,361]" country="Argentina" name="Neuquen" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Neuquén</collectingRegion>
population, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="conservation">
<paragraph blockId="18.[1416,2625,289,1265]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[1419,1764,407,440]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In 
<collectingCountry box="[1581,1654,446,479]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
the species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in 
<collectingCountry box="[1456,1599,525,558]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, 
<collectingCountry box="[1530,1673,686,715]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in 
<collectingCountry box="[2148,2224,686,715]" name="Chile" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Chile</collectingCountry>
. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in 
<collectingCountry box="[1577,1670,760,793]" name="Bolivia" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Bolivia</collectingCountry>
in 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in 
<collectingCountry box="[1606,1749,917,950]" name="Argentina" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Argentina</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="18" pageNumber="429" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph blockId="18.[1416,2625,289,1265]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">
<emphasis box="[1418,1571,965,990]" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Bustamante et al. (1992), Cofré &amp; Marquet (1999), Corley et al. (1995), Crespo (1975), Crespo &amp; de Carlo (1963), Ebensperger et al. (1991), Glade (1993), Iriarte et al. (1989), Jaksic &amp; Yanez (1983), Jaksic, Schlatter &amp; Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez &amp; 
<collectingRegion box="[1897,1935,1043,1068]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Rau</collectingRegion>
(1983), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez &amp; Novaro (2004), Jiménez, Yanez &amp; Jaksic (1996), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo &amp; Jaksic (1996), Johnson (1992), Johnson &amp; Franklin (1994a, 1994b), Langguth (1975), Marquet et al. (1993), Meserve et al. (1987), Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b), Novaro, Funes &amp; Walker (2000), Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud &amp; Monsalvo (2000), Romo (1995), Salvatori et al. (1999), Simonetti (1986), Travaini, Juste et al. (2000), Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000), Wayne et al. (1989), Yanez &amp; Jaksic (1978), Yanez &amp; 
<collectingRegion box="[1598,1636,1239,1264]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="18" pageNumber="429">Rau</collectingRegion>
(1980), Zunino et al. (1995).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>