270 lines
34 KiB
XML
270 lines
34 KiB
XML
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<mods:title id="DA4E9F6F70D6E2B4E8EEE5CC66D505E8">Pteropodidae</mods:title>
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<mods:name id="C9C4E2737ABE9A4A5B4653D677EFEFDF" type="personal">
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<mods:namePart id="FBF231DF8374D4DD088F42102DB862AA">Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="9FA531BB0DA520C7422C558495D76CA1">Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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<mods:placeTerm id="36861183AB43B86D7DA8A0A3D8DFE615">Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
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<mods:titleInfo id="E0CA218989C65ECADD24F4207323FC73">
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<mods:title id="DA89E223EDBBC2E818D557E0914D3A2C">Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats</mods:title>
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<treatment id="03AD87FAFFA7F64E8C6C31BFFCBDF636" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6795025" ID-GBIF-Taxon="196379247" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6795025" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03AD87FAFFA7F64E8C6C31BFFCBDF636" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03AD87FAFFA7F64E8C6C31BFFCBDF636" lastPageId="100" lastPageNumber="158" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498C6C31BFFA67FA4A" box="[1394,1474,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="multiple">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C6C31BFFA67FA4A" blockId="99.[1390,2341,1443,1534]" box="[1394,1474,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<heading id="D0F38180FFA7F6498C6C31BFFA67FA4A" box="[1394,1474,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<figureCitation id="133F2A69FFA7F6498C6C31BFFA67FA4A" box="[1394,1474,1443,1489]" captionStart="Plate 11: Pteropodidae" captionStartId="97.[117,147,3321,3346]" captionTargetBox="[11,2741,16,3661]" captionTargetPageId="96" captionText="174. Livingstone’s Flying Fox (Pteropus livingstonii), 175. Pemba Flying Fox (Pleropus voeltzkowi), 176. Ryukyu Flying Fox (Pleropus dasymallus), 177. Bonin Flying Fox (Pteropus pselaphon), 178. Little Golden-mantled Flying Fox (Pleropus pumilus), 179. Lyle’s Flying Fox (Pteropus lylei), 180. Indian Flying Fox (Pleropus medius), 181. Rodrigues Flying Fox (Pteropus rodricensus), 182. Large Flying Fox (Pteropus vampyrus), 183. Aldabra Flying Fox (Pleropus aldabrensis), 184. Malagasy Flying Fox (Pteropus rufus), 185. Seychelles Flying Fox (Pleropus seychellensis), 186. Greater Mascarene Flying Fox (Pteropus niger), 187. Aru Flying Fox (Pteropus aruensis), 188. Kai Flying Fox (Pleropus keyensis), 189. Black-bearded Flying Fox (Pleropus melanopogon), 190. South Moluccan Flying Fox (Pteropus chrysoproctus), 191. North Moluccan Flying Fox (Pteropus caniceps)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6448911" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6448911/files/figure.png" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">180.</figureCitation>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498CCA31BFF8E1FA4A" box="[1492,1860,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498CCA31BFF8E1FA4A" blockId="99.[1390,2341,1443,1534]" box="[1492,1860,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<heading id="D0F38180FFA7F6498CCA31BFF8E1FA4A" box="[1492,1860,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<vernacularName id="050746C2FFA7F6498CCA31BFF8E1FA4A" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[1492,1860,1443,1489]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" language="eng" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">Indian Flying Fox</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498E9631BFF70DFA4A" box="[1928,2216,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="nomenclature">
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||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498E9631BFF70DFA4A" blockId="99.[1390,2341,1443,1534]" box="[1928,2216,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<heading id="D0F38180FFA7F6498E9631BFF70DFA4A" box="[1928,2216,1443,1489]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498E9631BFF70DFA4A" ID-CoL="7WP9Q" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[1928,2216,1443,1489]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">
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<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498E9631BFF70DFA4A" box="[1928,2216,1443,1489]" italics="true" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Pteropus medius</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498C7131F8F681FA62" box="[1391,2340,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="vernacular_names">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C7131F8F681FA62" blockId="99.[1390,2341,1443,1534]" box="[1391,2340,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<heading id="D0F38180FFA7F6498C7131F8F681FA62" box="[1391,2340,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498C7131F8FA1EFA62" bold="true" box="[1391,1467,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">French:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050746C2FFA7F6498CDB31F8F921FA62" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[1477,1668,1508,1529]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" language="fra" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">Roussette indienne</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498F8431F8F950FA62" bold="true" box="[1690,1781,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">German:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050746C2FFA7F6498FE131F8F81EFA62" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[1791,1979,1508,1529]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" language="deu" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">Indischer Flughund</vernacularName>
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/
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<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498ECE31F8F789FA62" bold="true" box="[2000,2092,1508,1529]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Spanish:</emphasis>
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<vernacularName id="050746C2FFA7F649812B31F8F681FA62" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[2101,2340,1508,1529]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" language="esp" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">
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Zorro volador de la
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<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F64981E631F8F681FA62" box="[2296,2340,1508,1529]" name="India" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">India</collectingCountry>
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</vernacularName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498ECA3233F7BBF9F4" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="reference_group">
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||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498ECA3233F7BBF9F4" blockId="99.[2004,2597,1583,2002]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498ECA3233F7D4F9D3" bold="true" box="[2004,2161,1583,1608]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F64981933233F7BCF9F4" ID-CoL="7WP9Q" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">Pteropus medius Temminck, 1825</taxonomicName>
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,
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498131324AF66EF90D" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="materials_examined">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498131324AF66EF90D" blockId="99.[2004,2597,1583,2002]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<materialsCitation id="3B6C3CB1FFA7F6498131324AF66EF90D" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3828391397" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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“Le continent de I'Inde, aux enwvirons de Calcutta et de
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<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F64980083269F61CF90D" box="[2326,2489,1653,1686]" name="India" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Pondichéry</collectingCountry>
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.”
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</materialsCitation>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498ECA32BDF662F7BA" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="discussion">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498ECA32BDF662F7BA" blockId="99.[2004,2597,1583,2002]" lastBlockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498ECA32BDF70AF925" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[2004,2223,1697,1726]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="medius">Pteropus medius</taxonomicName>
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is in the wvampyrus species group. Its taxonomy is problematic; epithet
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F649815932F0F73AF896" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" box="[2119,2207,1772,1805]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="medius">medius</taxonomicName>
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replaces
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F649803732F0F600F896" box="[2345,2469,1772,1805]" class="Liliopsida" family="Pandanaceae" genus="Pandanus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Pandanales" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="giganteus">giganteus</taxonomicName>
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by M. T. Briinnich in 1782 (junior objective synonym of
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F64981513323F759F8C7" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[2127,2300,1855,1884]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="vampyrus">P. vampyrus</taxonomicName>
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). It is possibly conspecific with
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498186337FF699F81F" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[2200,2364,1891,1924]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="vampyrus">P. vampyrus</taxonomicName>
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and could also include part of
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F64981A83392F6CAF830" authorityName="Hayman" authorityYear="1963" box="[2230,2415,1934,1963]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Micropteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="intermedius">P. intermedius</taxonomicName>
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(considered here to be conspecific with
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F649806733A9F5B8F849" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[2425,2589,1973,2002]" class="Dothideomycetes" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Fungi" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Ascomycota" rank="species" species="vampyrus">P. vampyrus</taxonomicName>
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, pending revision). Subspecies chinghaiensis is a nomen nudum, and the single
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<collectingRegion id="49C0F80EFFA7F64980C833C5FA3CF7BA" country="China" name="Qinghai" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Qinghai</collectingRegion>
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specimen is considered to be alien in
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<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F6498EA03C1CF7B0F7BA" box="[1982,2069,2048,2081]" name="China" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">China</collectingCountry>
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. Three subspecies recognized.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498C713C34F9BEF695" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="multiple">
|
||
<caption id="DF7B6664FFA7F6498C713C34F9BEF695" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6803133" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6803133" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6803133/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" startId="99.[1391,1545,2088,2121]" targetBox="[1389,1980,1589,2003]" targetPageId="99">
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C713C34F8A5F7D2" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" box="[1391,1792,2088,2121]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498C713C34F8A5F7D2" bold="true" box="[1391,1792,2088,2121]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C713C4FF8B2F703" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498C713C4FF8B2F703" authority="Temminck, 1825" authorityName="Temminck" authorityYear="1825" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="medius" subSpecies="medius">P.m.mediusTemminck,1825—WPakistan,India(exceptNE),SriLanka,Bangladesh,WMyanmar,andAndamanIs.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C703CBEF80BF724" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" box="[1390,1966,2210,2239]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498C703CBEF80BF724" authority="G. M. Allen, 1908" authorityName="G. M. Allen" authorityYear="1908" box="[1390,1966,2210,2239]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="medius" subSpecies="ariel">P.m.arielG.M.Allen,1908—MaldivesIs.</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C713CDAF9BEF695" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
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<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA7F6498C713CDAF8EDF77C" authority="Hodgson, 1835" authorityName="Hodgson" authorityYear="1835" box="[1391,1864,2246,2279]" class="Mammalia" family="Pteropodidae" genus="Pteropus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Chiroptera" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="medius" subSpecies="leucocephalus">P. m. leucocephalus Hodgson, 1835</taxonomicName>
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—
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<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F6498E6E3CDAF860F77C" box="[1904,1989,2246,2279]" name="Nepal" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Nepal</collectingCountry>
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, NE
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<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F64981113CDAF7FCF77C" box="[2063,2137,2246,2279]" name="India" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">India</collectingCountry>
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(
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<collectingRegion id="49C0F80EFFA7F649816F3CDAF771F77C" box="[2161,2260,2246,2279]" country="India" name="Sikkim" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Sikkim</collectingRegion>
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,
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<collectingRegion id="49C0F80EFFA7F64981FB3CDAF6E5F77C" box="[2277,2368,2246,2279]" country="India" name="Assam" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Assam</collectingRegion>
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, and
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<collectingRegion id="49C0F80EFFA7F649808D3CDAF5B1F77C" box="[2451,2580,2246,2279]" country="India" name="Manipur" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Manipur</collectingRegion>
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), and
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA7F6498CB33CF1F9B2F695" box="[1453,1559,2285,2318]" name="Bhutan" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Bhutan</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F6498C703D05F9B0F28B" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="description">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F6498C703D05F9B0F28B" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498C703D05F9CBF6AD" bold="true" box="[1390,1646,2329,2358]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
|
||
Head—body
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F6498E303D05F842F6AD" box="[1838,2023,2329,2358]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.335" metricValueMax="2.4699999999999998" metricValueMin="2.2" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="mm" value="233.5" valueMax="247.0" valueMin="220.0">220-247 mm</quantity>
|
||
(tailless), ear
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F64981A33D05F6F3F6AD" box="[2237,2390,2329,2358]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.95" metricValueMax="4.2" metricValueMin="3.7" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="mm" value="39.5" valueMax="42.0" valueMin="37.0">37-42 mm</quantity>
|
||
, hindfoot
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F64980ED3D05FA70F6C6" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="5.0" metricValueMax="5.5" metricValueMin="4.5" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="mm" value="50.0" valueMax="55.0" valueMin="45.0">45- 55 mm</quantity>
|
||
, forearm
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F6498F743D20F881F6C6" box="[1642,1828,2364,2397]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.6949999999999998" metricValueMax="1.7600000000000002" metricValueMin="1.6300000000000001" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="mm" value="169.5" valueMax="176.0" valueMin="163.0">163-176 mm</quantity>
|
||
; weight 1.1-
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F6498EC93D20F7B8F6C6" box="[2007,2077,2364,2397]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="2.0" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="kg" value="2.0">2 kg</quantity>
|
||
. Muzzle of the Indian Flying Fox is long, tapering, and dark brown. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Ears are very long, exposed, and pointed. Head and body pelage are generally short but longest in subspecies leucocephalus. Crown is highly variable from brown to more rufous or yellowish shades. Mantle strongly contrasts with back, from golden buffy to ocherous, extending to sides of neck with same or more intense tinge. Males have tuft of glandular, more rigid hairs on sides of neck that are slightly warmer in tinge that surrounding pelage. Back is seal-brown; hairs are closely adpressed and inconspicuously grizzled; rump is often tinged in earthy brown. Throat is dark brown. Breast and belly are always paler than back but vary considerably across individuals and regions from almost golden buff to cinnamon rufous or even light russet-brown. Flanks are dark brown. Genital area is dark brown, and lower belly is brown. Uropatagium is well developed in center; calcar is short. Wing membranes are dark brown; index claw is present. Skull is typical pteropine; rostrum is long and pointed, profile gently sloping into gentle rise; orbit is large; zygoma is wide but relatively thin and strongly arched; basicranial deflection is strong; postorbital foramina are small; postorbital constriction is obvious; temporallines are joined low, but sagittal crest is sharp; nuchal crest is obvious; palate is flat and long; tooth rows gently diverge posteriorly; and post-dental palate is long. Mandible has long, sloping symphysis, thick body, and coronoid. Palatal ridges 5 + 6 + 3 or 5 + 5 + 3 pattern. Dentition is typical pteropine, but cingula and ledges are poorly developed in canines and cheekteeth; M, is small, peg-like, and displaced lingually. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 68, with seven pairs of metacentric, nine pairs of submetacentric to subtelocentric, and two pairs of acrocentric autosomes. X-chromosome is metacentric, and Y-chromosome is acrocentric.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA7F64E8C73390BFDA4FEC2" lastPageId="100" lastPageNumber="158" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA7F64E8C73390BFDA4FEC2" blockId="99.[1389,2598,2009,3463]" lastBlockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" lastPageId="100" lastPageNumber="158" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA7F6498C73390BFA7BF2A3" bold="true" box="[1389,1502,3351,3384]" pageId="99" pageNumber="157">Habitat.</emphasis>
|
||
Various forested habitats from sea level up to elevations of ¢.
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA7F6498052390BF619F2A3" box="[2380,2492,3351,3384]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.0" pageId="99" pageNumber="157" unit="m" value="2000.0">2000 m</quantity>
|
||
. Roosting habitat is located preferentially in areas with lower-than-average rainfall, away from flooded areas, and close to human settlements, thus increasing up to six fold the probability of zoonotic diseases spread, particularly Nipah virus outbreaks (particularly in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E88573524FE51FEC2" box="[329,500,312,345]" name="Bangladesh" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Bangladesh</collectingCountry>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89B9357CFA86FCA9" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="food_feeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89B9357CFA86FCA9" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89B9357CFE09FE1A" bold="true" box="[167,428,352,385]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
|
||
The Indian Flying Fox is mainly frugivorous but also includes flower products and leaves in its diet. It feeds on fruit from at least 17 plant genera in 13 families. Figs (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E887035ABFE16FE4B" box="[366,435,439,464]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" genus="Ficus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Ficus</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E88DC35ABFDE9FE4B" box="[450,588,439,464]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Moraceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Moraceae</taxonomicName>
|
||
) are dominant in diets. Most fruits consumed are either yellow or green. It feeds on flowers of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8BD235C6FBE3FE6C" box="[716,1094,474,503]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Anacardiaceae" genus="Mangifera" kingdom="Plantae" order="Sapindales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Mangifera (Anacardiaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8D4535C6FAF0FE6C" box="[1115,1365,474,503]" class="Liliopsida" family="Arecaceae" genus="Cocos" kingdom="Plantae" order="Arecales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Cocos (Arecaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E89B5361EFE69FD84" authority="(Proteacae)" baseAuthorityName="Proteacae" box="[171,460,514,543]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" genus="Grevillea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Grevillea (Proteacae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E88FE361EFC81FD84" box="[480,804,514,543]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Myrtaceae" genus="Eucalyptus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Myrtales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8A27361EFC37FD84" box="[825,914,514,543]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Albizia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Albizia</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8AC1361EFBF9FD84" box="[991,1116,514,543]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Erythrina" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Erythrina</taxonomicName>
|
||
(both
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8DDB361EFAE9FD84" box="[1221,1356,514,543]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Fabaceae</taxonomicName>
|
||
);
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E89B73635FE53FDDD" box="[169,502,553,582]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Euphorbiaceae" genus="Hevea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malpighiales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Hevea (Euphorbiaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
; and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8B533635FCECFDDD" box="[589,841,553,582]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Malvaceae" genus="Ceiba" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malvales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Ceiba (Malvaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Flowers are white, yellow, or red. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E89B6364CFE89FDF6" box="[168,300,592,621]" name="Myanmar" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Myanmar</collectingCountry>
|
||
, diet contains fruits of 24 species in 19 families, flowers of six species in six families, and leaves of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E88FF3664FD9EFD0E" box="[481,571,632,661]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Albizia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Albizia</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8B553664FCC2FD0E" box="[587,871,632,661]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Malvaceae" genus="Bombax" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malvales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Bombax (Malvaceae)</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E8AA63664FC58FD0E" box="[952,1021,632,661]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Malvaceae" genus="Ceiba" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malvales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Ceiba</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Active symbiotic cellulolytic and xylanolytic bacteria were isolated in the intestine of the Indian Flying Fox so consumption of leaves and fruit fiber represent carbohydrate sources. Fruits are taken from trees and carried away to nearby roost trees where they are squeezed, and fibers and seeds are rejected; foraging activity results in active seed and pollen dispersal.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89B93725FDF6FBF5" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="breeding">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89B93725FDF6FBF5" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89B93725FE88FCC1" bold="true" box="[167,301,825,858]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Breeding.</emphasis>
|
||
The Indian Flying Fox is seasonally monoestrous. It mates in July—October in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E89D1377CFEBFFC1A" box="[207,282,864,897]" name="India" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
. Copulation occurs mainly in morning. Male approaches female while wing fanning and vocalizing; female moves away, and when she stops, male licks her genitals, and they copulate for 10-40 seconds, with frequent vaginal licking by the male after copulation. Gestation lasts 140-150 days. One young is born each year in maternity colonies in February-March (
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E8B5637E2FD3DFB84" box="[584,664,1022,1055]" name="India" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
). Mothers carry young in flight. Young are weaned at ¢.5 months old. Sexual maturity occurs at 1-1-5 years old. Maximum longevity in captivity is more than 40 years.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89BB3068FEAFFAC0" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="activity">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89BB3068FEAFFAC0" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89BB3068FE3FFB0E" bold="true" box="[165,410,1140,1173]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
|
||
Indian Flying Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. They leave roosts at ¢.18:00 h and circle the site before dispersing in all directions to forage. Individuals return to roosts just before dawn. They visit ponds and drink water on the wing. Core body temperature was 36-7°C at ambient temperatures (0-32°C). Average basal metabolism was
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA0F64E88C3310BFDEEFAAF" box="[477,587,1303,1332]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.6" metricValueMax="5.2" metricValueMin="0.0" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" unit="cm" value="26.0" valueMax="52.0" valueMin="0.0">0-52 cm</quantity>
|
||
? O,/g/h, or 92% of the value expected based on mean weight.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89B9317EFD73F896" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89B9317EFD73F896" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89B9317EFCC8FA18" bold="true" box="[167,877,1378,1411]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
|
||
Indian Flying Foxes are highly colonial, and roosts can contain hundreds to thousands of both sexes in emergent trees (average
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA0F64E883431ADFECAFA49" box="[298,367,1457,1490]" metricMagnitude="1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.0" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" unit="m" value="20.0">20 m</quantity>
|
||
tall) in rural areas and urban environments close to agriculturalfields. In
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E89CA31C4FEDDFA62" box="[212,376,1496,1529]" name="Bangladesh" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Bangladesh</collectingCountry>
|
||
, colony size was larger in dense forest than in other environments; colony size averaged 387 individuals and reached a maximum of 2700 individuals; however, a colony of more than 24,000 individuals spread over 2 ha in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E8DAA323BFA98F9D3" box="[1204,1341,1575,1608]" name="Sri Lanka" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Sri Lanka</collectingCountry>
|
||
is likely the largest known colony. A majority (65%) of roosting sites are intermittently occupied for ten or more years, and 87% of roosting sites are occupied year-round. A roosting site in southern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E8B123281FDF3F925" box="[524,598,1693,1726]" name="India" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
was occupied for more than 75 years. Nightly foraging commutes are up to
|
||
<quantity id="4CFC9B09FFA0F64E88D632D5FD88F97D" box="[456,557,1737,1766]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.5" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" unit="km" value="150.0">150 km</quantity>
|
||
. Day activity is typically pteropine, including wing flapping and antagonistic territorial interactions.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89B93308FEA3F694" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="conservation">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89B93308FEA3F694" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89B93308FDB6F8AE" bold="true" box="[167,531,1812,1845]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
|
||
CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C044D6FFFA0F64E88B03327FDF1F8C7" box="[430,596,1851,1884]" class="Liliopsida" family="Pandanaceae" genus="Pandanus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Pandanales" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="giganteus">P. giganteus</taxonomicName>
|
||
). Population of the Indian Flying Fox is suspected to be declining but not at a rate that justifies changing its conservation category. It is hunted for food and medicine in parts of its distribution. Loss of roosting trees to logging and road construction might be a threat, but moderate deforestation might be beneficial because it is tolerant to disturbance. It is listed as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act and persecuted by farmers. Culling of Indian Flying Foxes in conflict with fruit growers has reduced island populations on the
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E8C3F3C34FF49F7EA" name="Maldives" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Maldives</collectingCountry>
|
||
(subspecies ariel) by up to 80%. This subspecies can be considered endangered chiefly due to its limited insular distribution and human-wildlife conflict. Subspecies leucocephalus is protected in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E8B313C83FD26F75B" box="[559,643,2207,2240]" name="Nepal" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Nepal</collectingCountry>
|
||
under wildlife regulations. It is indirectly protected in regions of the Indian subcontinent where it is considered sacred (e.g. southern
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F313767CFFA0F64E89B63CEEFF5DF694" box="[168,248,2290,2319]" name="India" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C31E6567FFA0F64E89B63D02FCBDF636" pageId="100" pageNumber="158" type="bibRefCitation_list">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BBB36ECFFA0F64E89B63D02FCBDF636" blockId="100.[165,1376,273,2483]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">
|
||
<emphasis id="B970EAFEFFA0F64E89B63D02FEE4F6AC" bold="true" box="[168,321,2334,2359]" pageId="100" pageNumber="158">Bibliography.</emphasis>
|
||
Almeida et al. (2014), Anand & Sripathi (2004), Andersen (1912b), Brannich (1782), Chakravarthy et al. (2009), Hahn, Epstein et al. (2014), KryStufek (2009), Marimuthu (1992), Maruthupandian & Marimuthu (2013), McNab & Armstrong (2001), Mlikovsky (2012), Molur & Molur (2007), Molur, Pathak (1965), Win Sein-Sein & Mya Khin-Mya (2015), Zhang Jinshuo et al. (2010).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |