469 lines
69 KiB
XML
469 lines
69 KiB
XML
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<mods:title id="FB8BF48D0ECA0478E8BC8F616DFF6B98">Phylogeny and systematics of Diptera: Two decades of progress and prospects *</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="446062A345B5AD9F55618D7051883CD1">Wiegmann, Brian M.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="E1DD2593A41DF3F93CD527E2A42CD904">Courtney, Greg W.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:date id="4251125B42F4BE51C0C789EB63B530C4">2007</mods:date>
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<treatment id="03BD9B5BFFA0FFDFFF67FDA4E7FB6AD7" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6249062" ID-GBIF-Taxon="119382583" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6249062" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03BD9B5BFFA0FFDFFF67FDA4E7FB6AD7" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03BD9B5BFFA0FFDFFF67FDA4E7FB6AD7" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="571" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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<subSubSection id="C30E79C6FFA0FFDDFF67FDA4E7966A87" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA0FFDDFF67FDA4E53B6C82" blockId="4.[151,335,631,657]" box="[151,335,631,657]" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA0FFDDFF67FDA4E53B6C82" bold="true" box="[151,335,631,657]" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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Lower
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFF1FFDA4E53B6C82" ID-CoL="D2P" ID-ENA="7147" box="[239,335,631,657]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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</emphasis>
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<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA0FFDDFF67FD11E7966A87" blockId="4.[151,1436,706,1412]" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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The paraphyly of this assemblage (=”Nematocera”) was suspected for three decades (
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB5AFD11E13E6CCF" author="Hennig" box="[1194,1354,706,732]" pageId="4" pageNumber="584" refString="Hennig, W. (1968) Kritische Bemerkungen uber den Bau der Flugelwurzel bei den Dipteren und die Frage nach der Monophylie der Nematocera. Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde, 195, 1 - 23." type="journal article" year="1968">Hennig 1968</bibRefCitation>
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,
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFAAAFD11E1E36CCF" author="Hennig" box="[1370,1431,706,732]" pageId="4" pageNumber="584" refString="Hennig, W. (1973) Diptera (Zweiflugler). Handbuch der Zoologie (Berlin), 4, 1 - 200." type="journal article" year="1973">1973</bibRefCitation>
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,
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFF67FD39E4A06D17" author="Hennig" box="[151,212,746,772]" pageId="4" pageNumber="585" refString="Hennig, W. (1981) Insect phylogeny. New York: J. Wiley & Sons." type="book" year="1981">1981</bibRefCitation>
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,
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFF10FD39E58B6D17" author="Wood" box="[224,511,746,772]" pageId="4" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
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) and demonstrated in recent cladistic analyses (
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFBDCFD39E0BA6D17" author="Sinclair" box="[1068,1230,746,772]" pageId="4" pageNumber="588" refString="Sinclair, B. J. (1992) A phylogenetic interpretation of the Brachycera (Diptera) based on the larval mandible and associated mouthpart structures. Systematic Entomology, 17, 233 - 252." type="journal article" year="1992">Sinclair 1992</bibRefCitation>
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,
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB2AFD39E53D6D3F" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="4" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
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||
,
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFEA7FCC1E61E6D3F" author="Blagoderov" box="[343,618,786,812]" lastPageId="4" lastPageNumber="583" pageId="4" pageNumber="582" refString="Blagoderov, V., Grimaldi, D. A. & Fraser, N. C. (2007) How time flies for flies, Diverse Diptera from the triassic of Virginia and Early Radiation of the Order. American Museum Novitates 3572, 39 pp." type="book" year="2007">Blagoderov et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
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||
). A classification of
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||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFC98FCC1E7B46D3F" box="[872,960,786,812]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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that avoided the use of the paraphyletic “Nematocera” was proposed recently (
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFDADFCE9E7E56D47" author="Amorim" box="[605,913,826,852]" pageId="4" pageNumber="582" refString="Amorim, D. S. & Yeates, D. K. (2006) Pesky gnats, ridding dipteran classification of the " Nematocera ". Studia Dipterologica, 13, 3 - 9." type="journal article" year="2006">Amorim and Yeates 2006</bibRefCitation>
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). While there have been a few modern phylogenetic analyses of the relationships between the Lower dipteran families, both using morphological (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFAA4FCB1E5186DB7" author="Wood" pageId="4" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
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,
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFE89FC59E6816DB7" author="Oosterbroek" box="[377,757,906,932]" pageId="4" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
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||
) and molecular (Friedrick and
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB93FC59E0826DB7" author="Tautz" box="[1123,1270,906,932]" pageId="4" pageNumber="584" refString="Friedrich, M. & Tautz, D. (1997 b) Evolution and phylogeny of the Diptera: A molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28 S rDNA. Systematic Biology, 46, 674 - 698." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="b">Tautz 1997b</bibRefCitation>
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||
) data, there is little consensus of relationships (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFDE8FC61E7126DDF" author="Yeates" box="[536,870,946,972]" pageId="4" pageNumber="590" refString="Yeates, D. K. & Wiegmann, B. M. (1999) Congruence and Controversy: Toward a Higher-Level Classification of Diptera. Annual Review of Entomology, 44, 397 - 428." type="journal article" year="1999">Yeates and Wiegmann 1999</bibRefCitation>
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||
). However, the supertree is well resolved in the Lower
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFF1CFC09E5336DE7" box="[236,327,986,1012]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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, largely reflecting Oosterbroek and Courtney’s (1995) tree. Detailed examination of the male genital tract and aedeagus found a character uniting the Bibionomorpha, Ptychopteromorpha and Culicomorpha, and a character uniting the Blephariceromorpha, Psychodomorpha and the Brachycera (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB08FBF9E4A36A7F" author="Sinclair" pageId="4" pageNumber="588" refString="Sinclair, B. J., Borkent, A. & Wood, D. M. (2007) The male genital tract and aedeagal components of the Diptera with a discussion of their phylogenetic significance. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 150, 711 - 742." type="journal article" year="2007">Sinclair et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
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||
). In contrast to Osterbroek and Courtney’s (1995) results, both
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFC39FB81E0C86A7F" box="[969,1212,1106,1132]" pageId="4" pageNumber="588" refString="Sinclair, B. J., Borkent, A. & Wood, D. M. (2007) The male genital tract and aedeagal components of the Diptera with a discussion of their phylogenetic significance. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 150, 711 - 742." type="journal article">Sinclair et al. (2007)</bibRefCitation>
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||
and
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB06FB81E57C6A87" lastPageId="4" lastPageNumber="583" pageId="4" pageNumber="582" refString="Blagoderov, V., Grimaldi, D. A. & Fraser, N. C. (2007) How time flies for flies, Diverse Diptera from the triassic of Virginia and Early Radiation of the Order. American Museum Novitates 3572, 39 pp." type="book">Blagoderov et al. (2007)</bibRefCitation>
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||
found the Tipulomorpha to be sister to the remaining
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFC72FBA9E7AA6A87" box="[898,990,1146,1172]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA0FFDDFF36FB71E1FB6B97" blockId="4.[151,1436,706,1412]" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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Some of the traditionally recognized Lower Dipteran infraorders near the origin of the Brachycera are not monophyletic in the supertree—Psychodomorpha and Tipulomorpha form paraphyletic groupings, and the superfamily Tipuloidea is placed as sister-group to the Brachycera. This arrangement of Tipulomorpha and Psychodomorpha reflects conflict between the trees of
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<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFCEAFAC9E0386B27" author="Wood" box="[794,1100,1306,1332]" pageId="4" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent (1989)</bibRefCitation>
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and
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFB75FAC9E56F6B4F" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="4" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney (1995)</bibRefCitation>
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. The Culicomorpha and Ptychopteromorpha form a monophyletic group that is the sister lineage to all other
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFEECFAB9E5036B97" box="[284,375,1386,1412]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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, and the Culicomorpha contains two sister superfamilies, Culicoidea and Chironomoidea.
|
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</paragraph>
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||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA0FFDCFF67FA69E7526F41" blockId="4.[151,1437,1466,2012]" lastBlockId="5.[151,1437,152,738]" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="570" pageId="4" pageNumber="569">
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Culicomorpha are a well-supported clade containing most bloodsucking lower dipterans. This group includes the families
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFEDCFA31E5E86BEF" box="[300,412,1506,1532]" class="Insecta" family="Culicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Culicidae</taxonomicName>
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(mosquitoes),
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFDA1FA31E6C56BEF" box="[593,689,1506,1532]" class="Insecta" family="Dixidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Dixidae</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFD4FFA31E71D6BEF" box="[703,873,1506,1532]" class="Insecta" family="Corethrellidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Corethrellidae</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFC87FA31E0646BEF" box="[887,1040,1506,1532]" class="Insecta" family="Chaoboridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chaoboridae</taxonomicName>
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, together comprising Culicoidea, and families
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFEC8F9D9E5956837" box="[312,481,1546,1572]" class="Insecta" family="Thaumaleidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Thaumaleidae</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFE02F9D9E6056837" box="[498,625,1546,1572]" class="Insecta" family="Simuliidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Simuliidae</taxonomicName>
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(black flies),
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFCD3F9D9E79F6837" box="[803,1003,1546,1572]" class="Insecta" family="Ceratopogonidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Ceratopogonidae</taxonomicName>
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(biting midges) and
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFB04F9D9E1E86837" box="[1268,1436,1546,1572]" class="Insecta" family="Chironomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chironomidae</taxonomicName>
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(midges), together comprising Chironomoidea (
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFD23F9E1E701685F" author="Hennig" box="[723,885,1586,1612]" pageId="4" pageNumber="585" refString="Hennig, W. (1981) Insect phylogeny. New York: J. Wiley & Sons." type="book" year="1981">Hennig 1981</bibRefCitation>
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). Most recent phylogenetic studies in Lower
|
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<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFF67F989E49B6867" box="[151,239,1626,1652]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
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||
have focused molecular sequence data on issues within the Culicomorpha, especially the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFAD4F989E1EC6867" box="[1316,1432,1626,1652]" class="Insecta" family="Culicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Culicidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
. A number of studies have examined the relationship between Culicomorpha using sequence data from ribosomal genes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFED0F979E65968D7" author="Pawlowski" box="[288,557,1706,1732]" pageId="4" pageNumber="587" refString="Pawlowski, J., Szadziewski, R., Kmieciak, D., Fahrni, J. & Bittar, G. (1996) Phylogeny of the infraorder Culicomorpha (Diptera: Nematocera) based on 28 S RNA gene sequences. Systematic Entomology, 21, 167 - 178." type="journal article" year="1996">Pawlowski et al. 1996</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFDCBF979E76468D7" author="Miller" box="[571,784,1706,1732]" pageId="4" pageNumber="586" refString="Miller, B., Crabtree, M. & Savage, H. (1997) Phylogenetic relationships of the Culicomorpha inferred from 18 S and 5.8 S ribosomal DNA sequences (Diptera: Nematocera). Insect Molecular Biology, 6, 105 - 114." type="journal article" year="1997">Miller et al. 1997</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The latter results generally did not support the morphology-based tree of
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFE4EF901E71A68FF" author="Oosterbroek" box="[446,878,1746,1772]" pageId="4" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney (1995)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDDFC66F901E02F68FF" author="Saether" box="[918,1115,1746,1772]" pageId="4" pageNumber="588" refString="Saether, O. (2000 a) Phylogeny of Culicomorpha (Diptera). Systematic Entomology, 25, 223 - 234." type="journal article" year="2000" yearSuffix="a">Saether (2000a)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
reexamined culicomorph relationships using 81 morphological characters, including a number of new characters not considered by previous authors. Results varied depending on specific weights and transformation models applied to characters, suggesting that support for critical nodes may be weak for this dataset. In Saether’s tree,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFB24F899E10E6977" box="[1236,1402,1866,1892]" class="Insecta" family="Thaumaleidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Thaumaleidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
or (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFF6EF8A1E532699F" box="[158,326,1906,1932]" class="Insecta" family="Thaumaleidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Thaumaleidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
+
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFEA6F8A1E66A699F" box="[342,542,1906,1932]" class="Insecta" family="Nymphomyiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Nymphomyiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
) were the sister to all other culicomorph families.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFB70F8A1E153699F" box="[1152,1319,1906,1932]" class="Insecta" family="Chironomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chironomidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFA93F8A1E49369A7" class="Insecta" family="Simuliidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Simuliidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
formed a sister clade to the remaining families in the infraorder, and this clade sometimes included the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA0FFDDFF67F811E51769CF" box="[151,355,1986,2012]" class="Insecta" family="Ceratopogonidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="4" pageNumber="569" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Ceratopogonidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
. The Chironomoidea were paraphyletic with respect to the Culicoidea.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA0FFDCFB28F811E53A6EA1" author="Beckenbach" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="570" pageId="4" pageNumber="582" refString="Beckenbach, A. T. & Borkent, A. (2003) Molecular analysis of the biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 2. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 27, 21 - 35." type="journal article" year="2003">Beckenbach and Borkent (2003)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
used mtDNA to resolve the phylogeny of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFCADFF4BE0516EA1" box="[861,1061,152,178]" class="Insecta" family="Ceratopogonidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Ceratopogonidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and in so doing addressed the position of the family within the infraorder. Their results are congruent with earlier morphological analyses of the family and infraorder in suggesting that the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFD3AFF3BE7E66F11" box="[714,914,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Ceratopogonidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Ceratopogonidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
is sister to the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBB6FF3BE0856F11" box="[1094,1265,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Chironomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chironomidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFA93FF3BE4936F39" class="Insecta" family="Simuliidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Simuliidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
is sister to this combination. It appears that the mtDNA evolves at a higher rate in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB24FEC3E1E86F39" box="[1236,1436,272,298]" class="Insecta" family="Ceratopogonidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Ceratopogonidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFF38FEEBE5046F41" box="[200,368,312,338]" class="Insecta" family="Chironomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chironomidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
than in the other families sequenced.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA1FFDCFF36FEB3E52D6CF1" blockId="5.[151,1437,152,738]" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">
|
||
More recent studies have examined relationships of and within the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC1FFEB3E0176F69" box="[1007,1123,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Culicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Culicidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, using both mitochondrial (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF6FFE5BE5066FB1" author="Beebe" box="[159,370,392,418]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Beebe, N., Cooper, R., Morrison, D. & Ellis J. (2000) A phylogenetic study of the Anopheles punctulatus group of malaria vectors comparing rDNA sequence alignments derived from the mitochondrial and nuclear small ribosomal subunits. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 17, 430 - 436." type="journal article" year="2000">
|
||
Beebe
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA1FFDCFF02FE5BE5596FB2" box="[242,301,392,417]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
2000
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFE8EFE5BE6ED6FB1" author="Krzywinski" box="[382,665,392,418]" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Krzywinski, J., Wilkerson, R. & Besansky, N. J. (2001 a) Evolution of mitochondrial and ribosomal gene sequences in Anophelinae (Diptera: Culicidae): Implications for a phylogeny reconstruction. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 18, 479 - 487." type="journal article" year="2001" yearSuffix="a">Krzywinski et al. 2001a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
, Sallum et al. 2002,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFC7CFE5BE0016FB1" author="Mitchell" box="[908,1141,392,418]" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="587" pageId="5" pageNumber="586" refString="Mitchell, A., Sperling, F. A. H. & Hickey, D. A. (2002) Higher-level phylogeny of mosquitoes. Insect Systematics and Evolution, 33, 163 - 174." type="journal article" year="2002">Mitchell et al. 2002</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) and single copy nuclear genes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF19FE63E6546FD9" author="Besansky" box="[233,544,432,458]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Besansky, N. J. & Fahey, G. T. (1997) Utility of the white gene in estimating phylogenetic relationships among mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Molecular Biology and Evolution, 14, 442 - 454." type="journal article" year="1997">Besansky and Fahey 1997</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFDDDFE63E73F6FD9" author="Krzywinski" box="[557,843,432,458]" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Krzywinski, J., Wilkerson, R. & Besansky, N. J. (2001 b) Towards understanding Anophelinae (Diptera: Culicidae) phylogeny: Insights from nuclear single-copy genes and the weight of evidence. Systematic Biology, 50, 540 - 556." type="journal article" year="2001" yearSuffix="b">Krzywinski et al. 2001b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), combinations of molecular data classes (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFACBFE63E48D6FE1" author="Foley" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="584" pageId="5" pageNumber="583" refString="Foley, D. H., Wilkerson, R. C., Cooper, R. D., Volovsek, M. E. & Bryan, J. H. (2007) A molecular phylogeny of Anopheles annulipes (Diptera: Culicidae) sensu lato, the most species-rich anopheline complex. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 43, 283 - 297." type="journal article" year="2007">
|
||
Foley
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA1FFDCFA77FE63E4C16FE2" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
2007
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) and morphological data (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFDDEFE0BE76A6FE1" author="Anthony" box="[558,798,472,498]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Anthony, T. G., Harbach, R. E. & Kitching I. J. (1999) Phylogeny of the Pyretophorus Series of Anopheles Subgenus Cellia (Diptera, Culicidae). Systematic Entomology, 24, 193 - 205." type="journal article" year="1999">
|
||
Anthony
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA1FFDCFD6EFE0BE6AE6FE2" box="[670,730,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
1999
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFCDBFE0BE0006FE1" author="Harbach" box="[811,1140,472,498]" pageId="5" pageNumber="584" refString="Harbach, R. E. & Kitching, I. J. (1998) Phylogeny and Classification of the Culicidae (Diptera). Systematic Entomology, 23, 327 - 370." type="journal article" year="1998">Harbach and Kitching 1998</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFB70FE0BE12E6FE1" author="Sallum" box="[1152,1370,472,498]" pageId="5" pageNumber="588" refString="Sallum, M., Schultz, T. & Wilkerson, R. (2000) Phylogeny of Anophelinae (Diptera Culicidae) based on morphological characters. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 93, 745 - 775." type="journal article" year="2000">Sallum et al. 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFA96FE0BE5C66C09" author="Harbach" pageId="5" pageNumber="584" refString="Harbach, R. E. & Kitching, I. J. (2005) Reconsideration of anopheline phylogeny (Diptera: Culicidae:" type="book" year="2005">Harbach and Kitching 2005</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Subfamily relationships of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFCF2FDD3E7DE6C09" box="[770,938,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Chironomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Chironomidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
were articulated using a matrix of 89 morphological characters (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFE57FDFBE62E6C51" author="Saether" box="[423,602,552,578]" pageId="5" pageNumber="588" refString="Saether, O. (2000 b) Phylogeny of the Subfamilies of Chironomidae (Diptera). Systematic Entomology, 25, 393 - 403." type="journal article" year="2000" yearSuffix="b">Saether 2000b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), compiled from previous studies. Results of this quantitative study were broadly comparable to previous, nonquantitative approaches. Simultaneous phylogenetic analysis of 28S, elongation factor-1alpha, PEPCK (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase) and DDC (dopa decarboxylase) sequences yielded concordant results with morphological studies for the oldest divergences in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFAEDFD73E5216CF1" authority="Moulton 2000" authorityName="Moulton" authorityYear="2000" class="Insecta" family="Simuliidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">
|
||
Simuliidae (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF6FFD1BE5396CF1" author="Moulton" box="[159,333,712,738]" pageId="5" pageNumber="587" refString="Moulton, J. (2000) Molecular Sequence Data Resolves Basal Divergences within Simuliidae (Diptera), Systematic Entomology, 25, 95 - 113." type="journal article" year="2000">Moulton 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA1FFDCFF67FCF3E0C96DA1" blockId="5.[151,1436,800,946]" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">
|
||
Blephariceromorpha comprise three families,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFD28FCF3E7E16D29" box="[728,917,800,826]" class="Insecta" family="Blephariceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Blephariceridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC5AFCF3E0F76D29" box="[938,1155,800,826]" class="Insecta" family="Deuterophlebiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Deuterophlebiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB20FCF3E1EC6D29" box="[1232,1432,800,826]" class="Insecta" family="Nymphomyiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Nymphomyiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, united by a number of morphological characteristics generally associated with their larval habitat preference for swift-flowing streams (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFE3EFCA3E6846D99" author="Wood" box="[462,752,880,906]" pageId="5" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
, Courtney 1990ab, 1991,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFBEDFCA3E1E36D99" author="Oosterbroek" box="[1053,1431,880,906]" pageId="5" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF67FC4BE5576DA1" author="Arens" box="[151,291,920,946]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Arens, W. (1995) Structure and evolution of spiracular gills in pupae of net-winged midges (Nematocera, Blephariceridae), Part I. Paulianina and Edwardsina (subfamily Edwardsininae). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 73, 2318 - 2342." type="journal article" year="1995">Arens 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The infraorder is also monophyletic in the current supertree analysis (
|
||
<figureCitation id="132F36C8FFA1FFDCFB96FC4BE0DF6DA1" box="[1126,1195,920,946]" captionStart="FIGURE 1" captionStartId="3.[151,255,1178,1202]" captionTargetBox="[1189,1423,282,1142]" captionTargetPageId="3" captionText="FIGURE 1. Supertree for Diptera based on MRP coding of 313 nodes found in 12 primary trees listed in text. The MRP supertree matrix (available from the senior author) was analysed with PAUP * 4.0 B 10 (Swofford 2002) using Goloboff's weighting function, 10 random addition sequences and NNI branch swapping. The tree is stable to values of k ranging from 1 to 8. Figure 1 is a semi-strict consensus of 1879 trees (each cost - 295.34). Goloboff’s weighting scheme downweights characters with homoplasy during tree search, and k describes the shape of the weighting function, or the severity with which homoplasious characters are downweighted. Lower values of k discriminate most strongly against homoplasy, but the tree is insensitive to a range of different weighting functions. In terms of a MRP matrix, homoplasy can be interpreted as input tree nodes that are incongruent with other input tree nodes. This weighting scheme tends to prefer congruent nodes over incongruent ones." httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/180151/files/figure.png" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">Fig. 1</figureCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA1FFDCFF67FC23E1036B61" blockId="5.[151,1437,1008,1394]" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">
|
||
Bibionomorpha include
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFE28FC23E62F6A19" box="[472,603,1008,1034]" class="Insecta" family="Bibionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Bibionidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFD8AFC23E75E6A19" box="[634,810,1008,1034]" class="Insecta" family="Pachyneuridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Pachyneuridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFCB7FC23E0766A19" box="[839,1026,1008,1034]" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBD0FC23E0F96A19" box="[1056,1165,1008,1034]" class="Insecta" family="Sciaridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Sciaridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB1AFC23E1EF6A19" box="[1258,1435,1008,1034]" class="Insecta" family="Cecidomyiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cecidomyiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF6EFBCBE5B66A21" author="Blaschke-Berthold" box="[158,450,1048,1074]" pageId="5" pageNumber="583" refString="Blaschke-Berthold, U. (1994) Anatomie und Phylogenie der Bibionomorpha (Insecta: Diptera). Bonner Zoologische Monographien, 34, 1 - 206." type="journal article" year="1994">Blaschke-Berthold 1994</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFE21FBCBE68D6A21" author="Wood" box="[465,761,1048,1074]" pageId="5" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), and Axymyidae were added recently (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFB26FBCBE5396A49" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="5" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Evidence from 28S rDNA sequence (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFCC3FB93E0016A49" author="Friedrich" box="[819,1141,1088,1114]" pageId="5" pageNumber="584" refString="Friedrich, M. & Tautz, D. (1997 b) Evolution and phylogeny of the Diptera: A molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28 S rDNA. Systematic Biology, 46, 674 - 698." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="b">Friedrich and Tautz 1997b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) supported an expanded concept (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFEF1FBBBE5E96A91" author="Hennig" box="[257,413,1128,1154]" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Hennig, W. (1981) Insect phylogeny. New York: J. Wiley & Sons." type="book" year="1981">Hennig 1981</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) of Bibionomorpha that also contains the families
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC03FBBBE0E26A91" box="[1011,1174,1128,1154]" class="Insecta" family="Anisopodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Anisopodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB3FFBBBE12F6A91" box="[1231,1371,1128,1154]" class="Insecta" family="Scatopsidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Scatopsidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
from Psychodomorpha.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFE8FFB43E6376AB9" author="Chandler" box="[383,579,1168,1194]" pageId="5" pageNumber="583" refString="Chandler, P. (2002) Heterotricha Loew and allied genera (Diptera: Sciaroidea), offshoots of the stem group of Mycetophilidae and / or Sciaridae. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France (n. s.), 38, 101 - 144." type="journal article" year="2002">Chandler (2002)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
examined the relationships of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC4CFB43E0586AB9" box="[956,1068,1168,1194]" class="Insecta" family="Sciaridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Sciaridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBCBFB43E0876AB9" box="[1083,1267,1168,1194]" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA1FFDCFB0EFB43E1E86ABA" box="[1278,1436,1168,1193]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">sensu stricto,</emphasis>
|
||
and their relatives, discussing the distributions of
|
||
<specimenCount id="9D12E1C4FFA1FFDCFD2AFB6BE74D6AC1" box="[730,825,1208,1234]" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" type="adult">21 adult</specimenCount>
|
||
morphological characters. A number of extant genera normally placed in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFE3EFB33E64F6AE9" box="[462,571,1248,1274]" class="Insecta" family="Sciaridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Sciaridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFD91FB33E7716AE9" box="[609,773,1248,1274]" class="Insecta" family="Diadocidiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Diadocidiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
showed greater affinities with extinct Mesozoic families of Sciaroidea. Malaise trapping in
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3036ADDFFA1FFDCFDB7FADBE6936B31" box="[583,743,1288,1314]" name="New Zealand" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">New Zealand</collectingCountry>
|
||
temperate forests revealed a new family-level lineage of sciaroids, the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFEC8FAE3E67E6B59" box="[312,522,1328,1354]" class="Insecta" family="Rangomaramidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Rangomaramidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, or long-winged fungus gnats (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFC84FAE3E0CF6B59" author="Jaschhof" box="[884,1211,1328,1354]" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Jaschhof, M. & Didham, R. K. (2002) Rangomaramidae fam. nov. from New Zealand and implications for the phylogeny of the Sciaroidea (Diptera: Bibionomorpha). Studia Dipterologica Supplement, 11, 1 - 60." type="journal article" year="2002">Jaschhof and Didham 2002</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The small little – known family, Axymyidae, is placed as sister group to the remaining Bibionomorpha on the full supertree.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA1FFDFFF67FA63E6C36EC9" blockId="5.[151,1436,1456,2002]" lastBlockId="6.[151,1436,152,218]" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="571" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">
|
||
Psychodomorpha include the families
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFD95FA63E6886BD9" box="[613,764,1456,1482]" class="Insecta" family="Psychodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Psychodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFCFAFA63E7A26BD9" box="[778,982,1456,1482]" class="Insecta" family="Perissommatidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Perissommatidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC15FA63E0FF6BD9" box="[997,1163,1456,1482]" class="Insecta" family="Anisopodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Anisopodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB69FA63E1516BD9" box="[1177,1317,1456,1482]" class="Insecta" family="Scatopsidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Scatopsidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFA94FA63E4886BE1" class="Insecta" family="Synneuridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Synneuridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and were considered monophyletic based on synapomorphies of the larval mouthparts (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFAFBFA0BE4A06809" author="Krivosheina" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Krivosheina, N. (1988) Approaches to solutions of questions of classification of the Diptera. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie, 67, 378 - 390." type="journal article" year="1988">Krivosheina 1988</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF10F9D3E6776809" author="Wood" box="[224,515,1536,1562]" pageId="5" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). These synapomorphies have been criticized because of their widespread distribution in other infraorders (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFDFEF9FBE6B56851" author="Griffiths" box="[526,705,1576,1602]" pageId="5" pageNumber="584" refString="Griffiths, G. C. D. (1990) Book review: Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Quaestiones Entomologicae, 26, 117 - 130." type="journal article" year="1990">Griffiths 1990</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). More recent morphological studies have found that Psychodomorpha are paraphyletic with respect to Tipulomorpha and Brachycera (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFBA9F983E4A26881" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="5" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Molecular analyses have suggested that Psychodomorpha are polyphyletic, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB34F9ABE1136881" box="[1220,1383,1656,1682]" class="Insecta" family="Anisopodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Anisopodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFF67F973E55768A9" box="[151,291,1696,1722]" class="Insecta" family="Scatopsidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Scatopsidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
have closest relatives in Bibionomorpha (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFCE9F973E02F68A9" author="Friedrich" box="[793,1115,1696,1722]" pageId="5" pageNumber="584" refString="Friedrich, M. & Tautz, D. (1997 b) Evolution and phylogeny of the Diptera: A molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28 S rDNA. Systematic Biology, 46, 674 - 698." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="b">Friedrich and Tautz 1997b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The relationships of the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFF67F91BE55E68F1" box="[151,298,1736,1762]" class="Insecta" family="Synneuridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Synneuridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
were examined using
|
||
<specimenCount id="9D12E1C4FFA1FFDCFDCCF91BE6E968F1" box="[572,669,1736,1762]" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" type="adult">59 adult</specimenCount>
|
||
morphological features (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFC3BF91BE00F68F1" author="Amorim" box="[971,1147,1736,1762]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Amorim, D. S. (2000) A new phylogeny and phylogenetic classification for the Canthyloscelidae (Diptera, Psychodomorpha). Canandian Journal of Zoology, 78, 1067 - 1077." type="journal article" year="2000">Amorim 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB22F91BE1E868F1" box="[1234,1436,1736,1762]" class="Insecta" family="Canthyloscelidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Canthyloscelidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
are now recognized as a family-level taxonand is placed as sister group to the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBAAF923E0926919" box="[1114,1254,1776,1802]" class="Insecta" family="Scatopsidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Scatopsidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFB08F923E1E36919" author="Hutson" box="[1272,1431,1776,1802]" pageId="5" pageNumber="585" refString="Hutson, A. M. (1977) A revision of the families Synneuridae and Canthyloscelidae. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 35, 67 - 100." type="journal article" year="1977">Hutson 1977</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFF67F8CBE5376921" author="Amorim" box="[151,323,1816,1842]" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Amorim, D. S. (2000) A new phylogeny and phylogenetic classification for the Canthyloscelidae (Diptera, Psychodomorpha). Canandian Journal of Zoology, 78, 1067 - 1077." type="journal article" year="2000">Amorim 2000</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFE66F8CBE64B6921" box="[406,575,1816,1842]" class="Insecta" family="Valeseguyidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Valeseguyidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
are considered sister to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC91F8CBE0596921" box="[865,1069,1816,1842]" class="Insecta" family="Canthyloscelidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Canthyloscelidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
+
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBCDF8CBE0A56921" box="[1085,1233,1816,1842]" class="Insecta" family="Synneuridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Synneuridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, known from the Cretaceous of
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3036ADDFFA1FFDCFEB0F893E5C06949" box="[320,436,1856,1882]" name="Myanmar" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">Myanmar</collectingCountry>
|
||
, Miocene of
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3036ADDFFA1FFDCFDBCF893E68D6949" box="[588,761,1856,1882]" name="Dominican Republic" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">the Dominican</collectingCountry>
|
||
Republic, and recent of
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3036ADDFFA1FFDCFBE9F893E0F06949" box="[1049,1156,1856,1882]" name="Australia" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFB64F893E4A36991" author="Amorim" pageId="5" pageNumber="582" refString="Amorim, D. S. & Grimaldi, D. A. (2006) Valeseguyidae, a new family of Diptera in the Scatopsoidea, with a new genus in Cretaceous amber from Myanmar. Systematic Entomology, 31, 508 - 516." type="journal article" year="2006">Amorim and Grimaldi 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). A phylogeny of the genera of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFDB6F8BBE68A6991" box="[582,766,1896,1922]" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA1FFDCFCF5F8BBE7EC6992" box="[773,920,1896,1921]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="570">sensu stricto</emphasis>
|
||
genera
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA1FFDCFC04F8BBE00D6991" author="Soli" box="[1012,1145,1896,1922]" pageId="5" pageNumber="588" refString="Soli, G. E. E. (1997) The adult morphology of Mycetophilidae (s. str.), with a tentative phylogeny of the family (Diptera: Sciaroidea). Entomologica Scandinavica Supplement, 50, 5 - 55." type="journal article" year="1997">Soli (1997)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
did not support the three commonly recognized subfamilies. The relationships of families related to the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFB6BF843E12769B9" box="[1179,1363,1936,1962]" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
were reviewed, and a new morphological phylogeny found
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFCE7F86BE7BD69C1" box="[791,969,1976,2002]" class="Insecta" family="Cecidomyiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cecidomyiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFC29F86BE03C69C1" box="[985,1096,1976,2002]" class="Insecta" family="Sciaridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Sciaridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDCFBA7F86BE15D69C1" box="[1111,1321,1976,2002]" class="Insecta" family="Rangomaramidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Rangomaramidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
+
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA1FFDFFAC9F86BE4816EA1" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="571" order="Diptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="570" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFF0CFF4BE5066EA2" box="[252,370,152,177]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">sensu lato</emphasis>
|
||
) (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFE7AFF4BE6C96EA1" author="Amorim" box="[394,701,152,178]" pageId="6" pageNumber="582" refString="Amorim, D. S. & Rindal, E. (2007) Phylogeny of the Mycetophiliformia, with proposal of the subfamilies Heterotrichinae, Ohakuneinae, and Chiletrichinae for the Rangomaramidae (Diptera: Bibionomorpha). Zootaxa, 1535, 1 - 92." type="journal article" year="2007">Amorim and Rindal 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), however other studies placed
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFBDCFF4BE0ED6EA1" box="[1068,1177,152,178]" class="Insecta" family="Sciaridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Sciaridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
closer to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFAFBFF4BE4BC6EC9" class="Insecta" family="Mycetophilidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Mycetophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFF3FFF13E5166ECA" box="[207,354,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">sensu stricto</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFE81FF13E6DF6EC9" author="Hippa" box="[369,683,192,218]" pageId="6" pageNumber="585" refString="Hippa, H. & Vilkamaa, P. (2006) Phylogeny of the Sciaroidea (Diptera): the implication of additional taxa and character data. Zootaxa, 1132, 63 - 68." type="journal article" year="2006">Hippa and Vilkamaa 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA2FFDFFF67FEC3E5346D49" blockId="6.[151,1437,272,1220]" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">
|
||
The Tipulomorpha are a traditionally problematic taxon, both in terms of their familial composition and their relationship to other Lower
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFE17FEEBE6376F41" box="[487,579,312,338]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
. A number of synapomorphies have been proposed for a Tipulomorpha containing both the Tipuloidea (=
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFDB0FEB3E6DB6F69" box="[576,687,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Tipulidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Tipulidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFD4CFEB3E7436F6A" box="[700,823,352,377]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">sensu lato</emphasis>
|
||
, or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFC9FFEB3E04C6F69" box="[879,1080,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Cylindrotomidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cylindrotomidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFBB9FEB3E0A76F69" box="[1097,1235,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Limoniidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Limoniidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFB14FEB3E1156F69" box="[1252,1377,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Pediciidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Pediciidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFF67FE5BE5726FB1" box="[151,262,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Tipulidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Tipulidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFEFDFE5BE5D56FB2" box="[269,417,392,417]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">sensu stricto</emphasis>
|
||
) and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFE14FE5BE6F16FB1" box="[484,645,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Trichoceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Trichoceridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFD65FE5BE7456FB1" author="Hennig" box="[661,817,392,418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="584" refString="Hennig, W. (1954) Flugelgeader und System der Dipteren. Beitrage zur Entomologie, 4, 245 - 388." type="journal article" year="1954">Hennig 1954</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFCCEFE5BE70F6FB1" author="Hennig" box="[830,891,392,418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="584" refString="Hennig, W. (1973) Diptera (Zweiflugler). Handbuch der Zoologie (Berlin), 4, 1 - 200." type="journal article" year="1973">1973</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFC77FE5BE7B06FB1" author="Hennig" box="[903,964,392,418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="585" refString="Hennig, W. (1981) Insect phylogeny. New York: J. Wiley & Sons." type="book" year="1981">1981</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFC20FE5BE00D6FB1" author="Griffiths" box="[976,1145,392,418]" pageId="6" pageNumber="584" refString="Griffiths, G. C. D. (1990) Book review: Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Quaestiones Entomologicae, 26, 117 - 130." type="journal article" year="1990">Griffiths 1990</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFB75FE5BE57D6FD9" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="6" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Hennig further hypothesized a sister-group relationship between Tipulomorpha and all remaining
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFF67FE0BE4866FE1" box="[151,242,472,498]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
, an arrangement accepted by some authors (e.g.,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFCC5FE0BE0646FE1" author="Krzeminski" box="[821,1040,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="585" refString="Krzeminski, W. (1992 a) Triassic and Lower Jurassic stage of Diptera evolution. Mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen Gesellschaft, 65, 39 - 59." type="journal article" year="1992" yearSuffix="a">Krzeminski 1992a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFBECFE0BE09E6FE1" author="Michelsen" box="[1052,1258,472,498]" pageId="6" pageNumber="586" refString="Michelsen, V. (1996 b) Neodiptera: New insights into the adult morphology and higher level phylogeny of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 117, 71 - 102." type="journal article" year="1996" yearSuffix="b">Michelsen 1996b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFB06FE0BE48F6C09" author="Blagoderov" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="583" pageId="6" pageNumber="582" refString="Blagoderov, V., Grimaldi, D. A. & Fraser, N. C. (2007) How time flies for flies, Diverse Diptera from the triassic of Virginia and Early Radiation of the Order. American Museum Novitates 3572, 39 pp." type="book" year="2007">
|
||
Blagoderov
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFA77FE0BE4C16C0A" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
2007
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) but only partly by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFE1EFDD3E75F6C09" author="Wood" box="[494,811,512,538]" pageId="6" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent (1989)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
. Wood and Borkent’s concept of Tipulomorpha was restricted to the Tipuloidea, with this clade sister-group to all other
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFC56FDFBE78A6C51" box="[934,1022,552,578]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFBC6FDFBE0AC6C51" box="[1078,1240,552,578]" class="Insecta" family="Trichoceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Trichoceridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
assigned to Psychodomorpha. Larval characters were the primary basis for this rearrangement.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFBB7FD83E1756C79" author="Griffiths" box="[1095,1281,592,618]" pageId="6" pageNumber="584" refString="Griffiths, G. C. D. (1990) Book review: Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Quaestiones Entomologicae, 26, 117 - 130." type="journal article" year="1990">Griffiths (1990)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
accepted the Psychodomorpha
|
||
<emphasis id="B960F65FFFA2FFDFFE9AFDABE5DF6C82" box="[362,427,632,657]" italics="true" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">sensu</emphasis>
|
||
Wood and Borkent but suggested tipuloids should be moved from the base of the tree to be nested within the Psychodomorpha. This shift of tipulomorph families from the basal-most lineage of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFF67FD1BE49B6CF1" box="[151,239,712,738]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
to nested amongst psychodomorph families was suggested also by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFBF8FD1BE1EC6CF1" author="Oosterbroek" box="[1032,1432,712,738]" pageId="6" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney (1995)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
. The Tipulomorpha were paraphyletic in an analysis of 28S rDNA sequence data (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFBA2FD23E1FB6D19" author="Friedrich" box="[1106,1423,752,778]" pageId="6" pageNumber="584" refString="Friedrich, M. & Tautz, D. (1997 b) Evolution and phylogeny of the Diptera: A molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28 S rDNA. Systematic Biology, 46, 674 - 698." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="b">Friedrich and Tautz 1997b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This group also is paraphyletic in our supertree analysis (
|
||
<figureCitation id="132F36C8FFA2FFDFFCB2FCCBE7F36D21" box="[834,903,792,818]" captionStart="FIGURE 1" captionStartId="3.[151,255,1178,1202]" captionTargetBox="[1189,1423,282,1142]" captionTargetPageId="3" captionText="FIGURE 1. Supertree for Diptera based on MRP coding of 313 nodes found in 12 primary trees listed in text. The MRP supertree matrix (available from the senior author) was analysed with PAUP * 4.0 B 10 (Swofford 2002) using Goloboff's weighting function, 10 random addition sequences and NNI branch swapping. The tree is stable to values of k ranging from 1 to 8. Figure 1 is a semi-strict consensus of 1879 trees (each cost - 295.34). Goloboff’s weighting scheme downweights characters with homoplasy during tree search, and k describes the shape of the weighting function, or the severity with which homoplasious characters are downweighted. Lower values of k discriminate most strongly against homoplasy, but the tree is insensitive to a range of different weighting functions. In terms of a MRP matrix, homoplasy can be interpreted as input tree nodes that are incongruent with other input tree nodes. This weighting scheme tends to prefer congruent nodes over incongruent ones." httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/180151/files/figure.png" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">Fig. 1</figureCitation>
|
||
), with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFC10FCCBE0F66D21" box="[992,1154,792,818]" class="Insecta" family="Trichoceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Trichoceridae</taxonomicName>
|
||
nesting within the Psychodomorpha.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BAB2A4DFFA2FFDFFF36FCBBE7FB6AD7" blockId="6.[151,1437,272,1220]" pageId="6" pageNumber="571">
|
||
The search for the sister-group of Brachycera among subgroups of lower
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFB82FCBBE0BE6D91" box="[1138,1226,872,898]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Diptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
began relatively recently. The root of Brachycera has been localized within the Psychodomorpha in most studies (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFAD2FC43E54F6DC1" author="Wood" pageId="6" pageNumber="589" refString="Wood, D. M. & Borkent, A. (1989). Phylogeny and classification of the Nematocera. In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3. Ottawa: Research Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1333 - 1370." type="book" year="1989">Wood and Borkent 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFEBAFC6BE58D6DC1" author="Woodley" box="[330,505,952,978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="589" refString="Woodley, N. E. (1989) Phylogeny and classification of the " Orthorraphous " Brachycera In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3,. Ottawa: Resarch Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1371 - 1395." type="journal article" year="1989">Woodley 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFDF7FC6BE6DD6DC1" author="Sinclair" box="[519,681,952,978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="588" refString="Sinclair, B. J. (1992) A phylogenetic interpretation of the Brachycera (Diptera) based on the larval mandible and associated mouthpart structures. Systematic Entomology, 17, 233 - 252." type="journal article" year="1992">Sinclair 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFD47FC6BE7FC6DC1" author="Michelsen" box="[695,904,952,978]" pageId="6" pageNumber="586" refString="Michelsen, V. (1996 b) Neodiptera: New insights into the adult morphology and higher level phylogeny of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 117, 71 - 102." type="journal article" year="1996" yearSuffix="b">Michelsen 1996b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), or is shared with the Psychodomorpha and Tipulomorpha together (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFE43FC33E7466DE9" author="Oosterbroek" box="[435,818,992,1018]" pageId="6" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Some studies favor
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFBC5FC33E0AF6DE9" box="[1077,1243,992,1018]" class="Insecta" family="Anisopodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Anisopodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, over other families of Psychodomorpha, as sister-group of Brachycera (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFCC8FBDBE07B6A31" author="Krivosheina" box="[824,1039,1032,1058]" pageId="6" pageNumber="585" refString="Krivosheina, N. (1988) Approaches to solutions of questions of classification of the Diptera. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie, 67, 378 - 390." type="journal article" year="1988">Krivosheina 1988</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFBECFBDBE0BF6A31" author="Woodley" box="[1052,1227,1032,1058]" pageId="6" pageNumber="589" refString="Woodley, N. E. (1989) Phylogeny and classification of the " Orthorraphous " Brachycera In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3,. Ottawa: Resarch Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1371 - 1395." type="journal article" year="1989">Woodley 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFB28FBDBE53F6A59" author="Oosterbroek" pageId="6" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFEABFBE3E6006A59" author="Blagoderov" box="[347,628,1072,1098]" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="583" pageId="6" pageNumber="582" refString="Blagoderov, V., Grimaldi, D. A. & Fraser, N. C. (2007) How time flies for flies, Diverse Diptera from the triassic of Virginia and Early Radiation of the Order. American Museum Novitates 3572, 39 pp." type="book" year="2007">Blagoderov et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Synapomorphies proposed to link
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C1451CEFFA2FFDFFBC5FBE3E0AC6A59" box="[1077,1240,1072,1098]" class="Insecta" family="Anisopodidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="6" pageNumber="571" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Anisopodidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
and Brachycera include the loss of mandibular prostheca in the larvae, larval head with membranous ventral region, larval anal papillae absent (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFE60FB53E7666A89" author="Oosterbroek" box="[400,786,1152,1178]" pageId="6" pageNumber="587" refString="Oosterbroek, P. & Courtney, G. W. (1995) Phylogeny of the Nematocerous families of Diptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 267 - 311." type="journal article" year="1995">Oosterbroek and Courtney 1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), R4, M3 and discal cell present in the adult wings, and three spermathecae present in the adult females (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF8557BCFFA2FFDFFD20FB79E7F66AD7" author="Woodley" box="[720,898,1194,1220]" pageId="6" pageNumber="589" refString="Woodley, N. E. (1989) Phylogeny and classification of the " Orthorraphous " Brachycera In J. F. McAlpine and D. M. Wood, eds., Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 3,. Ottawa: Resarch Branch Agriculture Canada, pp. 1371 - 1395." type="journal article" year="1989">Woodley 1989</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |