657 lines
85 KiB
XML
657 lines
85 KiB
XML
<document id="5B73A8EDB9C85FC6F1F191D0DE6584DD" ID-CLB-Dataset="5350" ID-DOI="10.11646/zootaxa.3817.1.1" ID-GBIF-Dataset="d66f1b27-5891-4fa5-96e0-f75cb3ec2445" ID-ISSN="1175-5326" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10086256" ID-ZooBank="A3C10B34-7698-4C4D-94E5-DCF70B475603" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="felipe" IM.metadata_approvedBy="felipe" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="felipe" checkinTime="1623272878632" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="Schmidt, C. A. & Shattuck, S. O." docDate="2014" docId="03775906A6FD2CA7FF17F8BE1271F895" docLanguage="en" docName="zt03817p242.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Zootaxa 3817 (1)" docStyle="DocumentStyle:5EBBA59367AD13919D70D935FA04F6A3.14:Zootaxa.2013-.monograph" docStyleId="5EBBA59367AD13919D70D935FA04F6A3" docStyleName="Zootaxa.2013-.monograph" docStyleVersion="14" docTitle="Pseudoneoponera Donisthorpe" docType="treatment" docVersion="8" lastPageNumber="134" masterDocId="FF4E217EA67F2C22FF80FFE61065FFFA" masterDocTitle="The Higher Classification of the Ant Subfamily Ponerinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with a Review of Ponerine Ecology and Behavior" masterLastPageNumber="242" masterPageNumber="1" pageNumber="131" updateTime="1699920028738" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:mods id="F3CCBFF68FE4E59ACC307C8CA740E184" xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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<mods:titleInfo id="A2F9084EB3E1BA4D00602FE9A8B1EF8D">
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<mods:title id="8384E69A420011C5A1B327048AF2D20F">The Higher Classification of the Ant Subfamily Ponerinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with a Review of Ponerine Ecology and Behavior</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="BA4D4EB60EB5C9923ED1A42E7A0F8013">Schmidt, C. A.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="7B66072A8738180A8AB4BB345BD4487D">Shattuck, S. O.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:typeOfResource id="1B39A3F30DACD136B931095B0B7EE4CE">text</mods:typeOfResource>
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<mods:title id="6A15A981867807E09EE579FA8F8A1E39">Zootaxa</mods:title>
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</mods:titleInfo>
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<mods:part id="7FC5F4543F453AB43F687D615C8D6A72">
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<mods:date id="9685423B9E0292583F73269784FD4BCD">2014</mods:date>
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<mods:number id="56578B98E2A8835FD5BBE8F5AA9CDEA4">2014-06-18</mods:number>
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<mods:number id="C5B49E5CD2E4927D5FC4A27CE3E0DCE0">3817</mods:number>
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<mods:classification id="3BF4FDB2F93AB3EC3F6436A4A91BA561">journal article</mods:classification>
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<mods:identifier id="11CE40B286107311F1C11205C7CD384C" type="DOI">10.11646/zootaxa.3817.1.1</mods:identifier>
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<treatment id="03775906A6FD2CA7FF17F8BE1271F895" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5117524" ID-GBIF-Taxon="183709895" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5117524" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:03775906A6FD2CA7FF17F8BE1271F895" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03775906A6FD2CA7FF17F8BE1271F895" lastPageId="133" lastPageNumber="134" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1275F888" box="[151,528,1880,1906]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1275F888" blockId="130.[151,528,1880,1940]" box="[151,528,1880,1906]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<heading id="D0295F7CA6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1275F888" bold="true" box="[151,528,1880,1906]" fontSize="11" level="2" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" reason="4">
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1275F888" authority="Donisthorpe" authorityName="Donisthorpe" box="[151,528,1880,1906]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1275F888" bold="true" box="[151,528,1880,1906]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FD2CA0FF17F8BE1115F888" bold="true" box="[151,368,1880,1906]" italics="true" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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Donisthorpe
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</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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</heading>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6FD2CA0FF17F89D1083F86E" box="[151,230,1915,1940]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" type="description">
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FD2CA0FF17F89D1083F86E" blockId="130.[151,528,1880,1940]" box="[151,230,1915,1940]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<figureCitation id="13E5F495A6FD2CA0FF17F89D1083F86E" box="[151,230,1915,1940]" captionStart="FIGURE 25" captionStartId="131.[151,250,1630,1652]" captionTargetBox="[151,1436,195,1596]" captionTargetId="figure-177@131.[151,1436,195,1608]" captionTargetPageId="131" captionText="FIGURE 25. Worker caste of Pseudoneoponera oculata: lateral and dorsal view of body and full-face view of head (CASENT0172433, April Nobile and www.antweb.org); world distribution of Pseudoneoponera." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10120870" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10120870/files/figure.png" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">Fig. 25</figureCitation>
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</paragraph>
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||
</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6FD2CA1FF17F85B117BF8C5" lastPageId="131" lastPageNumber="132" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FD2CA0FF17F85B127BF80B" blockId="130.[151,1436,1981,2034]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<treatmentCitationGroup id="ABCECF3EA6FD2CA0FF17F85B127BF80B" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">
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<treatmentCitation id="0A7FCE01A6FD2CA0FF17F85B1234F829" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[151,593,1981,2003]" page="439" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" year="1943">
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FD2CA0FF17F85B1234F829" authority="Donisthorpe, 1943 a: 439" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityPageNumber="439" authorityYear="1943" box="[151,593,1981,2003]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FD2CA0FF17F85B112BF829" box="[151,334,1981,2003]" italics="true" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FD2CA0FED5F85B1234F829" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[341,593,1981,2003]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" pagination="433 - 475" refId="ref139650" refString="Donisthorpe, H. (1943 a) The ants (Hym., Formicidae) of Waigeu Island, North Dutch New Guinea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11 (10), 433 - 475." type="journal article" year="1943">Donisthorpe, 1943a: 439</bibRefCitation>
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</taxonomicName>
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</treatmentCitation>
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(as genus). Type-species:
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<treatmentCitation id="0A7FCE01A6FD2CA0FCE0F85B15FDF829" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[864,1432,1981,2003]" page="439" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" year="1943">
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FD2CA0FCE0F85B15FDF829" authority="Donisthorpe, 1943 a: 439" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityPageNumber="439" authorityYear="1943" box="[864,1432,1981,2003]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="verecundae">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FD2CA0FCE0F85B14F4F829" box="[864,1169,1981,2003]" italics="true" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">Pseudoneoponera verecundae</emphasis>
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<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FD2CA0FB18F85B15FDF829" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[1176,1432,1981,2003]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131" pagination="433 - 475" refId="ref139650" refString="Donisthorpe, H. (1943 a) The ants (Hym., Formicidae) of Waigeu Island, North Dutch New Guinea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11 (10), 433 - 475." type="journal article" year="1943">Donisthorpe, 1943a: 439</bibRefCitation>
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</taxonomicName>
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</treatmentCitation>
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; by original designation.
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FD2CA0FE3DF83A127BF80B" bold="true" box="[445,542,2012,2034]" pageId="130" pageNumber="131">Gen. rev.</emphasis>
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</treatmentCitationGroup>
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</paragraph>
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<caption id="DFA1B898A6FC2CA1FF17F9B8140AF969" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10120870" ID-Zenodo-Dep="10120870" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/10120870/files/figure.png" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" startId="131.[151,250,1630,1652]" targetBox="[151,1436,195,1596]" targetPageId="131">
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FC2CA1FF17F9B8140AF969" blockId="131.[151,1436,1630,1683]" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FF17F9B81143F989" bold="true" box="[151,294,1630,1652]" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">FIGURE 25.</emphasis>
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Worker caste of
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FE6CF9B81299F98E" box="[492,764,1630,1652]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="oculata">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FE6CF9B81299F98E" box="[492,764,1630,1652]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera oculata</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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: lateral and dorsal view of body and full-face view of head (CASENT0172433, April Nobile and www.antweb.org); world distribution of
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FC33F99B140FF969" box="[947,1130,1661,1683]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FC33F99B140FF969" box="[947,1130,1661,1683]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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.
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</paragraph>
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</caption>
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FC2CA1FF17F95C117BF8C5" blockId="131.[151,1436,1722,2035]" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FF17F95C1104F929" box="[151,353,1722,1747]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FF17F95C1104F929" box="[151,353,1722,1747]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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is a moderately large genus, with 18 described species, and ranges from
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<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FC2CA1FB29F95C1486F929" box="[1193,1251,1722,1747]" name="India" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">India</collectingCountry>
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to
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<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FC2CA1FA8AF95C1511F929" box="[1290,1396,1722,1747]" name="Australia" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Australia</collectingCountry>
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. Its sister group is unresolved.
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FE52F93812F9F90D" box="[466,668,1758,1783]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FE52F93812F9F90D" box="[466,668,1758,1783]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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is notable for the unusual foamy defensive secretions its workers exude from the sting, for its small colonies, and for its unusual social systems, including the frequent occurrence of gamergates.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6FC2CA6FF47F8AC1510FC17" lastPageId="132" lastPageNumber="133" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" type="diagnosis">
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<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FC2CA6FF47F8AC13E3FEE1" blockId="131.[151,1436,1722,2035]" lastBlockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" lastPageId="132" lastPageNumber="133" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FF47F8AC1124F899" bold="true" box="[199,321,1866,1891]" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Diagnosis.</emphasis>
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Workers of
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FE5CF8AC12C3F899" box="[476,678,1866,1891]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FE5CF8AC12C3F899" box="[476,678,1866,1891]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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are distinguished from other ponerines by their combination of robust build, coarse sculpturing, shaggy pilosity, obsolete metanotal groove, a nodiform petiole which is semicircular in dorsal view and often has a denticulate posterodorsal margin, longitudinally striate tergite A3 (rarely otherwise sculptured), and strong gastral constriction between A3 and A4.
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FBBCF8501563F835" box="[1084,1286,1974,1999]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FBBCF8501563F835" box="[1084,1286,1974,1999]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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most closely resembles
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FE93F83C11CAF809" box="[275,431,2010,2035]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FE93F83C11CAF809" box="[275,431,2010,2035]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Bothroponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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and
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FE70F83C12F7F809" authorityName=", Bolton & Fisher" authorityYear="2008" box="[496,658,2010,2035]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FE70F83C12F7F809" box="[496,658,2010,2035]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Phrynoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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, and to a lesser extent
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FC2CA1FC31F83D143AF808" box="[945,1119,2011,2034]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Ectomomyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="131" pageNumber="132" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FC2CA1FC31F83D143AF808" box="[945,1119,2011,2034]" italics="true" pageId="131" pageNumber="132">Ectomomyrmex</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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, but these genera lack the shaggy pilosity, semicircular denticulate petiole, and longitudinally striate tergite A3 of
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FB18FF711507FF4A" box="[1176,1378,151,176]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FB18FF711507FF4A" box="[1176,1378,151,176]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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, and
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FF17FF5A1104FF2F" box="[151,353,188,213]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF17FF5A1104FF2F" box="[151,353,188,213]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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lacks the spinose propodeum (except
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<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FCDDFF5B1464FF2F" box="[861,1025,188,213]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bispinosa">
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FCDDFF5B1464FF2F" box="[861,1025,188,213]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Ps. bispinosa</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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), five-spined petiolar node, and unconstricted gaster of
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<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FE1FFF39122DFF02" box="[415,584,223,248]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FE1FFF391221FF02" authorityName=", Bolton & Fisher" authorityYear="2008" box="[415,580,223,248]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Phrynoponera</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
and the small eyes, angular sides of the head, divided mesopleuron (except in a few species), and weakly constricted gaster of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FD51FEE3131AFEE6" box="[721,895,261,284]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Ectomomyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FD51FEE3131AFEE6" box="[721,895,261,284]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Ectomomyrmex</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FEC110BEFD7F" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FEC111A3FEBA" bold="true" box="[199,454,295,320]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Synoptic description.</emphasis>
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FE50FEC11243FEBA" box="[464,550,295,320]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Worker.</emphasis>
|
||
Medium to large (TL
|
||
<quantity id="4C2645F5A6FB2CA6FCAFFEC113FAFEBA" box="[815,927,295,320]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.35" metricValueMax="1.8" metricValueMin="0.9" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" unit="mm" value="13.5" valueMax="18.0" valueMin="9.0">9–18 mm</quantity>
|
||
) robust ants with the standard characters of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FF17FEAA109FFE9F" baseAuthorityName="Forel" baseAuthorityYear="1917" box="[151,250,332,357]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Ponerini">Ponerini</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Mandibles triangular and usually with a distinct basal groove. Eyes moderate to large in size, placed anterior of head midline. Mesopleuron usually not divided by a transverse groove. Metanotal groove absent. Propodeum broad dorsally, the posterodorsal margin usually unarmed (bispinose in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FB00FE731568FE57" box="[1152,1293,404,429]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bispinosa">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FB00FE731568FE57" box="[1152,1293,404,429]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. bispinosa</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
). Propodeal spiracle slit-shaped. Metatibial spur formula (1s, 1p). Petiole surmounted by a wide node, which is roughly semicircular in dorsal view (the anterior face convex and the posterior face flat or concave), the posterodorsal margin often denticulate (rarely medially incised or trispinose). Gaster with a strong girdling constriction between pre- and postsclerites of A4. Head and body coarsely sculptured, the tergite of A3 usually deeply longitudinally striate. Head and body shaggy, clothed in dense pilosity, which is often reddish in color. Color ferrugineous to black.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FD761252FCA1" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FD761172FD5D" box="[199,279,656,679]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Queen.</emphasis>
|
||
Queens have been formally described only for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FCBFFD7714FFFD52" authority="(Wheeler, 1919)" baseAuthorityName="Wheeler" baseAuthorityYear="1919" box="[831,1178,655,680]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="sandakana">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FCBFFD7713B3FD52" box="[831,982,655,680]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. sandakana</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FC67FD6914F6FD52" author="Wheeler, W. M." box="[999,1171,655,680]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="43 - 147" refId="ref167725" refString="Wheeler, W. M. (1919) The ants of Borneo. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 63, 43 - 147." type="journal article" year="1919">Wheeler, 1919</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, for which the worker caste is still undescribed. Queens have also been noted to occur in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC05FD531509FD37" authority="(Sommer & Holldobler, 1992)" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[901,1388,692,717]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC05FD531475FD37" box="[901,1040,692,717]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FB9EFD521501FD37" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B." box="[1054,1380,692,717]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="470 - 472" refId="ref162954" refString="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. (1992) Coexistence and dominance among queens and mated workers in the ant Pachycondyla tridentata. Naturwissenschaften, 79 (10), 470 - 472." type="journal article" year="1992">Sommer & Hölldobler, 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and an undescribed species from
|
||
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6FB2CA6FE6DFD3E127AFD15" box="[493,543,728,751]" country="Indonesia" name="Jawa Timur" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Java</collectingRegion>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FDB2FD3112C5FD0A" author="Ito, F." box="[562,672,727,752]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito, 1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Gamergates are common in the genus, and the queen caste has apparently been completely lost in many species. From the description of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC72FD1B14ECFCEF" baseAuthorityName="Wheeler" baseAuthorityYear="1919" box="[1010,1161,764,789]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="sandakana">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC72FD1B14ECFCEF" box="[1010,1161,764,789]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. sandakana</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, it appears that queens, when they exist, are similar to workers but are alate and have the typical modifications of the head and thorax found in other alate ponerine queens.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FC811407FC7A" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" box="[199,1122,871,896]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FC81116DFC7A" box="[199,264,871,896]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Male.</emphasis>
|
||
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6FB2CA6FE8EFC811153FC7A" box="[270,310,871,896]" country="South Sudan" name="Lakes" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">See</collectingRegion>
|
||
descriptions in
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FE69FC81121FFC7A" author="Forel, A." box="[489,634,871,896]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="54 - 77" refId="ref142752" refString="Forel, A. (1900 a) Ponerinae et Dorylinae d'Australie recoltes par MM. Turner, Froggatt, Nugent, Chase, Rothney, J. - J. Walker, etc. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique, 44, 54 - 77." type="journal article" year="1900">Forel, 1900a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FD05FC811352FC7A" author="Wheeler, W. M." box="[645,823,871,896]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="43 - 147" refId="ref167725" refString="Wheeler, W. M. (1919) The ants of Borneo. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 63, 43 - 147." type="journal article" year="1919">Wheeler (1919)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
, and
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FCF2FC81143BFC7A" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[882,1118,871,896]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="433 - 475" refId="ref139650" refString="Donisthorpe, H. (1943 a) The ants (Hym., Formicidae) of Waigeu Island, North Dutch New Guinea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11 (10), 433 - 475." type="journal article" year="1943">Donisthorpe (1943a)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FC6B1327FC5F" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" box="[199,834,908,933]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FC6B1174FC5E" box="[199,273,909,932]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Larva.</emphasis>
|
||
Described by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FE33FC6A1288FC5F" author="Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J." box="[435,749,908,933]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="386 - 394" refId="ref167128" refString="Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J. (1971 b) The larvae of the ant genus Bothroponera (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 73, 386 - 394." type="journal article" year="1971">Wheeler & Wheeler (1971b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FD79FC6A1350FC5F" author="Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J." box="[761,821,908,933]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="41 - 64" refId="ref167213" refString="Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J. (1976) Supplementary studies on ant larvae: Ponerinae. Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 102, 41 - 64." type="journal article" year="1976">1976</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FC491510FC17" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FC491195FC32" bold="true" box="[199,496,943,968]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Geographic distribution.</emphasis>
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FE78FC4912A7FC32" box="[504,706,943,968]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FE78FC4912A7FC32" box="[504,706,943,968]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
occurs from
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FB2CA6FCDAFC4913F6FC32" box="[858,915,943,968]" name="India" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
through Southeast Asia to
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FB2CA6FB4AFC491556FC32" box="[1226,1331,943,968]" name="Australia" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
, where it reaches its greatest species diversity. At least one species,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FCA3FC3313E9FC17" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" box="[803,908,980,1005]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FCA3FC3313E9FC17" box="[803,908,980,1005]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. rufipes</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, ranges all the way from
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FB2CA6FB29FC321486FC17" box="[1193,1251,980,1005]" name="India" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">India</collectingCountry>
|
||
to
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3C9A880A6FB2CA6FA87FC321514FC17" box="[1287,1393,980,1005]" name="Australia" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Australia</collectingCountry>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="C3C4BB9BA6FB2CA7FF47FC111271F895" lastPageId="133" lastPageNumber="134" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FC111111FACA" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FC1111BFFBEA" bold="true" box="[199,474,1015,1040]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Ecology and behavior.</emphasis>
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FE65FC1112CAFBEA" box="[485,687,1015,1040]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FE65FC1112CAFBEA" box="[485,687,1015,1040]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has received a fair bit of attention from researchers due to its unusual reproductive and social strategies. While most species have not been carefully surveyed, the queen caste has apparently been found in only a few species, while gamergates have been found in several species (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FAA4FBD91151FB87" author="Monnin, T. & Peeters, C." pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="109 - 116" refId="ref156256" refString="Monnin, T. & Peeters, C. (2008) How many gamergates is an ant queen worth? Naturwissenschaften, 95, 109 - 116. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / s 00114 - 007 - 0297 - 0" type="journal article" year="2008">Monnin & Peeters, 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). In at least two species, both queens and gamergates may cohabit a single colony (see below). Just how widespread reproduction by gamergates is in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FD5BFB6113C0FB5A" box="[731,933,1159,1184]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FD5BFB6113C0FB5A" box="[731,933,1159,1184]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is unknown, but it may be characteristic of much or most of the genus. Interestingly, queens are unknown from all Australian
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FBEEFB4A15FDFB3F" box="[1134,1432,1196,1221]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="undetermined">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FBEEFB4A155DFB3F" box="[1134,1336,1196,1221]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
species
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, having only been found in some Indonesian species. It is tempting to think that the complete loss of the queen caste may be synapomorphic for the Australian species, but too little is known about relationships within the genus to test this hypothesis.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47FADA112CF9F2" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FF47FADA118EFAAF" box="[199,491,1340,1365]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="undetermined">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF47FADA11F4FAAF" box="[199,401,1340,1365]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
species
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
studied to date all have very small colonies (roughly 10 to
|
||
<specimenCount id="9DD82399A6FB2CA6FB1DFADA1545FAAF" box="[1181,1312,1340,1365]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" type="worker">20 workers</specimenCount>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FAADFADA15F2FAAF" author="Ito, F." box="[1325,1431,1340,1365]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito, 1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
; Peeters
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF6EFA871143FA82" box="[238,294,1375,1400]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1991;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FEFAFA861239FA82" author="Ito, F. & Higashi S." box="[378,604,1375,1400]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="80 - 82" refId="ref147538" refString="Ito, F. & Higashi S. (1991) A linear dominance hierarchy regulating reproduction and polyethism of the queenless ant Pachycondyla sublaevis. Naturwissenschaften, 78 (2), 80 - 82. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01206263" type="journal article" year="1991">Ito & Higashi, 1991</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FDE7FAB91323FA82" author="Higashi, S. & Ito, F. & Sugiura, N. & Ohkawara, K." box="[615,838,1375,1400]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="179 - 184" refId="ref146370" refString="Higashi, S., Ito, F., Sugiura, N. & Ohkawara, K. (1994) Workers age regulates the linear dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant, Pachycondyla sublaevis (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Animal Behaviour, 47 (1), 179 - 184. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1006 / anbe. 1994.1020" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Higashi
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FD45FA871298FA82" box="[709,765,1375,1400]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FCD0FAB91452FA82" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[848,1079,1375,1400]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC36FA87138BFA82" box="[950,1006,1375,1400]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Peeters et al (1991) report that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FF17FA631179FA67" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1887" box="[151,284,1412,1437]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="sublaevis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF17FA631179FA67" box="[151,284,1412,1437]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. sublaevis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
workers forage individually and prey on insects, and
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FC00FA6214C9FA67" author="Shivashankar, T. & Kumar, A. R. V. & Veeresh, G. K." box="[896,1196,1412,1437]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="137 - 151" refId="ref162129" refString="Shivashankar, T., Kumar, A. R. V. & Veeresh, G. K. (1995) Ponerine ants as potential predators of termites under forest ecosystem. Biological Control of Social Forest and Plantation Crops Insects, 137 - 151." type="book chapter" year="1995">
|
||
Shivashankar
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FBA0FA63143CFA67" box="[1056,1113,1412,1437]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
(1995)
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
report that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FAB1FA6315F9FA67" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" box="[1329,1436,1412,1437]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FAB1FA6315F9FA67" box="[1329,1436,1412,1437]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. rufipes</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
feeds on a wide diversity of arthropods and other invertebrates, but otherwise few direct observations of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FF17FA2A1104FA1F" box="[151,353,1484,1509]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FF17FA2A1104FA1F" box="[151,353,1484,1509]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
feeding have been published. Presumably these ants are generalist predators and scavengers, like most ponerines.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FB2CA6FF47F9F21327F827" blockId="132.[151,1440,151,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
An unusual characteristic of this genus is that workers produce a foamy thread-like defensive excretion from their venom glands. This has been observed in at least
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC96F9DF152EF9AA" box="[790,1355,1591,1616]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC96F9DF13C7F9AA" box="[790,930,1591,1616]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bispinosa">P. bispinosa</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC30F9DF1451F9AA" authorityName="Guerin-Meneville" authorityYear="1844" box="[944,1076,1591,1616]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Odontomachus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="insularis">P. insularis</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FBC1F9DF14D4F9AA" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" box="[1089,1201,1591,1616]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">P. rufipes</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FB3EF9DF1522F9AA" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1887" box="[1214,1351,1591,1616]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="sublaevis">P. sublaevis</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FA07F9DF1163F98F" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FA07F9DF1163F98F" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FE97F9BA11AEF98F" author="Bingham, C. T." box="[279,459,1628,1653]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" refId="ref132962" refString="Bingham, C. T. (1903) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-wasps. Taylor and Francis, London, 506 pp." type="book" year="1903">Bingham, 1903</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FE5AF9BA1283F98F" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[474,742,1628,1653]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FDDFF9BB12FFF98F" box="[607,666,1628,1653]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1981
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
; Peeters
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FCCFF9BB13EEF98F" box="[847,907,1628,1653]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1991;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FC65F9BA14B3F98F" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[997,1238,1628,1653]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FBCEF9BB14ECF98F" box="[1102,1161,1628,1653]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The foaming is made possible by the atrophication of the Dufour’s gland and the resulting mixing of venom gland proteins with air (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FF1EF94211C3F947" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[158,422,1700,1725]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FEA3F9431139F947" box="[291,348,1700,1725]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1981
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FE33F942137BF947" author="Buschinger, A. & Maschwitz, U." box="[435,798,1700,1725]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="95 - 150" refId="ref134958" refString="Buschinger, A. & Maschwitz, U. (1984) Defensive behavior and defensive mechanisms in ants. In: Hermann, H. R. (Ed.), Defensive Mechanims in Social Insects. Praeger, New York, pp. 95 - 150." type="book chapter" year="1984">Buschinger & Maschwitz, 1984</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The report by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FC54F94214E8F947" author="Bingham, C. T." box="[980,1165,1700,1725]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" refId="ref132962" refString="Bingham, C. T. (1903) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-wasps. Taylor and Francis, London, 506 pp." type="book" year="1903">Bingham (1903)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FB47F943152AF947" box="[1223,1359,1700,1725]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bispinosa">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FB47F943152AF947" box="[1223,1359,1700,1725]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. bispinosa</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FA07F9431080F91A" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FA07F9431080F91A" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. rufipes</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
release the foam from their mouths is almost certainly a misinterpretation of the phenomenon, as suggested by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FF3AF90A11ADF8FF" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[186,456,1772,1797]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FEBBF90B1111F8FF" box="[315,372,1772,1797]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
(1981)
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
; indeed, one of us (CS) personally witnessed a
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC59F90B1427F8FF" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" box="[985,1090,1772,1797]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC59F90B1427F8FF" box="[985,1090,1772,1797]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. rufipes</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
worker emit foam from the tip of its abdomen.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FECDF8E9123FF8D2" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[333,602,1807,1832]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FE4FF8F7126DF8D2" box="[463,520,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
(1981)
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
report that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FD5DF8F7133EF8D2" authorityName="Guerin-Meneville" authorityYear="1844" box="[733,859,1807,1832]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Odontomachus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="insularis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FD5DF8F7133EF8D2" box="[733,859,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. insularis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FC13F8F71478F8D2" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[915,1053,1807,1832]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FC13F8F71478F8D2" box="[915,1053,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
retain a normal sting response, in addition to the foaming mechanism, and that their sting is painful. They hypothesize (and provide supporting experimental evidence) that the foaming mechanism is more effective than the sting against small fast moving enemies such as other ants. The foam apparently acts as a physical obstacle requiring active cleaning rather than as a neurotoxin (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FEB6F84612C3F843" author="Buschinger, A. & Maschwitz, U." box="[310,678,1952,1977]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="95 - 150" refId="ref134958" refString="Buschinger, A. & Maschwitz, U. (1984) Defensive behavior and defensive mechanisms in ants. In: Hermann, H. R. (Ed.), Defensive Mechanims in Social Insects. Praeger, New York, pp. 95 - 150." type="book chapter" year="1984">Buschinger & Maschwitz, 1984</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). A similar foamy secretion has been independently evolved by at least one species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FEF7F8221273F827" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1900" box="[375,534,1988,2013]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FEF7F8221273F827" box="[375,534,1988,2013]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">Pachycondyla</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FB2CA6FDA5F82312F5F827" authorityName=": Longino" authorityYear="2013" box="[549,656,1988,2013]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="harpax">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FB2CA6FDA5F82312F5F827" box="[549,656,1988,2013]" italics="true" pageId="132" pageNumber="133">P. harpax</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FB2CA6FD1FF8221350F827" author="Overal, W. L." box="[671,821,1988,2013]" pageId="132" pageNumber="133" pagination="268 - 269" refId="ref158140" refString="Overal, W. L. (1987) Defensive chemical weaponry in the ant Pachycondyla harpax (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Entomological Science, 22 (3), 268 - 269." type="journal article" year="1987">Overal, 1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47FF7F1448FDC7" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF47FF7F1133FF4A" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[199,342,151,176]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF47FF7F1133FF4A" box="[199,342,151,176]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has an unusual social system in which colonies can have both multiple dealate queens and multiple gamergates, which compete with each other for reproductive dominance (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FBC4FF5A15F5FF2F" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B." box="[1092,1424,188,213]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="470 - 472" refId="ref162954" refString="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. (1992) Coexistence and dominance among queens and mated workers in the ant Pachycondyla tridentata. Naturwissenschaften, 79 (10), 470 - 472." type="journal article" year="1992">Sommer & Hölldobler, 1992</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Some colonies lack queens, in which case reproduction is performed solely by gamergates. A large proportion of both queens and workers in a colony are mated (47–100% and 81–100%, respectively;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FBF4FEE2153AFEE7" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[1140,1375,260,285]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB5BFEE31571FEE7" box="[1243,1300,260,285]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), and multiple individuals can be reproductively active. Since so many individuals in a colony are mated, reproduction seems to be correlated with age and behavioral dominance rather than with mating status. Workers apparently mate with males produced by their own colony, while queens do not (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FC0DFE8914E7FE72" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[909,1154,367,392]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC79FE971450FE72" box="[1017,1077,367,392]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Colony founding in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FA07FE971163FE57" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FA07FE971163FE57" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
may occur via several different mechanisms, including pleiometrosis and fission (Hölldobler
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FAD8FE7315F0FE57" box="[1368,1429,404,429]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1992;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FF5EFE5111A3FE2A" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[222,454,439,464]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FEC4FE5F1119FE2A" box="[324,380,439,464]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Tandem recruitment is used during nest emigration (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FBA4FE51154FFE2A" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[1060,1322,439,464]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB28FE5F1485FE2A" box="[1192,1248,439,464]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1981
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Workers of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF34FE3B1158FE0F" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[180,317,476,501]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF34FE3B1158FE0F" box="[180,317,476,501]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
forage individually at night, and nesting generally occurs in the ground, though nests have also been found in trees (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FEBEFE191225FDE2" author="Maschwitz, U. & Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E." box="[318,576,511,536]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="79 - 81" refId="ref154031" refString="Maschwitz, U., Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, E. (1981) Foaming in Pachycondyla - a new defense mechanism in ants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9 (1), 79 - 81. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 00299857" type="journal article" year="1981">
|
||
Maschwitz
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FE41FDE7119DFDE2" box="[449,504,511,536]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1981
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FDCCFE191354FDE2" author="Sommer, K. & Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K." box="[588,817,511,536]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="175 - 185" refId="ref162991" refString="Sommer, K., Holldobler, B. & Jessen, K. (1994) The unusual social organization of the ant Pachycondyla tridentata (Formicidae, Ponerinae). Journal of Ethology, 12 (2), 175 - 185. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02350062" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Sommer
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FD31FDE7128CFDE2" box="[689,745,511,536]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FCC4FDE6141FFDE2" author="Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, U." box="[836,1146,511,536]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="123 - 133" refId="ref148110" refString="Jessen, K. & Maschwitz, U. (1983) Abdominal glands in Pachycondyla tridentata (Smith) - Formicidae, Ponerinae. Insectes Sociaux, 30 (2), 123 - 133. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 02223863" type="journal article" year="1983">Jessen & Maschwitz (1983)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
found that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB79FDE715E7FDE2" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[1273,1410,511,536]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB79FDE715E7FDE2" box="[1273,1410,511,536]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is endowed with a large number of abdominal glands whose functions are unknown.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47FDAE119CFCC2" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FF47FDAE1157FD9A" author="Ito, F." box="[199,306,583,608]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito (1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FEC0FDA1111CFD9A" author="Ito, F." box="[320,377,583,608]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="193 - 198" refId="ref147493" refString="Ito, F. (1999) Male behavior and regulation of worker mating in a ponerine ant, Pachycondyla (Bothroponera) sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Journal of Insect Behavior, 12 (2), 193 - 198." type="journal article" year="1999">1999</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) studied the reproductive strategy of an undescribed
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC5CFDA11565FD9A" box="[988,1280,583,608]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="undetermined">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC5CFDA114C3FD9A" box="[988,1190,583,608]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
species
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
in
|
||
<collectingRegion id="491A26F2A6FA2CA7FAA8FDAE1538FDA5" box="[1320,1373,584,607]" country="Indonesia" name="Jawa Timur" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Java</collectingRegion>
|
||
. This species is unusual in that multiple mated workers may be present in a colony, but only the top-ranked worker is a gamergate (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FE99FD691118FD52" author="Ito, F." box="[281,381,655,680]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito 1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Queens do occur, but most colonies are apparently queenless and have around
|
||
<specimenCount id="9DD82399A6FA2CA7FB7AFD69151FFD52" box="[1274,1402,655,680]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" type="worker">10 workers</specimenCount>
|
||
, of which one or more are mated (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FE73FD521232FD37" author="Ito, F." box="[499,599,692,717]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito 1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The workers in a colony are ranked in a dominance hierarchy structured via frequent antagonistic interactions; low-ranking workers are the principal foragers (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FBE1FD3114AEFD0A" author="Ito, F." box="[1121,1227,727,752]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="126 - 140" refId="ref147308" refString="Ito, F. (1993) Functional monogyny and dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant Pachycondyla (= Bothroponera) sp. in West-Java, Indonesia (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae). Ethology, 95 (2), 126 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0310.1993. tb 00463. x" type="journal article" year="1993">Ito, 1993</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Males attempt to mate with their nestmates but are usually rejected; mating only occurs with foreign males, and only when a gamergate is absent (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FE03FCF91188FCC2" author="Ito, F." box="[387,493,799,824]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="193 - 198" refId="ref147493" refString="Ito, F. (1999) Male behavior and regulation of worker mating in a ponerine ant, Pachycondyla (Bothroponera) sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Journal of Insect Behavior, 12 (2), 193 - 198." type="journal article" year="1999">Ito, 1999</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47FCA31368FBEA" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF47FCA3112EFCA7" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1887" box="[199,331,836,861]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="sublaevis">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF47FCA3112EFCA7" box="[199,331,836,861]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. sublaevis</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
also reproduces via gamergates, but in yet another variation on the theme, only a single worker in the colony is mated and performs all reproduction for the colony (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FC08FC811414FC7A" author="Ito, F. & Higashi S." box="[904,1137,871,896]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="80 - 82" refId="ref147538" refString="Ito, F. & Higashi S. (1991) A linear dominance hierarchy regulating reproduction and polyethism of the queenless ant Pachycondyla sublaevis. Naturwissenschaften, 78 (2), 80 - 82. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01206263" type="journal article" year="1991">Ito & Higashi, 1991</bibRefCitation>
|
||
; Peeters
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB57FC8F1575FC7A" box="[1239,1296,871,896]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1991). The members of a colony are organized in a strict linear hierarchy determined by age and by ritualized dominance displays, and queens are apparently absent (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FD15FC4913E5FC32" author="Higashi, S. & Ito, F. & Sugiura, N. & Ohkawara, K." box="[661,896,943,968]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="179 - 184" refId="ref146370" refString="Higashi, S., Ito, F., Sugiura, N. & Ohkawara, K. (1994) Workers age regulates the linear dominance hierarchy in the queenless ponerine ant, Pachycondyla sublaevis (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Animal Behaviour, 47 (1), 179 - 184. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1006 / anbe. 1994.1020" type="journal article" year="1994">
|
||
Higashi
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FD77FC571356FC32" box="[759,819,943,968]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1994
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). This species occurs in Australian
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FA9FFC4915F9FC32" box="[1311,1436,943,968]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Myrtaceae" genus="Eucalyptus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Myrtales" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FA9FFC4915F9FC32" box="[1311,1436,943,968]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Eucalyptus</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
forests, and nests in the ground (Peeters
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FDE4FC3312F8FC17" box="[612,669,980,1005]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">et al.</emphasis>
|
||
, 1991). Gamergates are also known to occur in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB40FC3310BFFBEA" authority="(Peeters, 1993)" baseAuthorityName="Peeters" baseAuthorityYear="1993" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="porcata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB40FC331557FC16" box="[1216,1330,981,1004]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. porcata</emphasis>
|
||
(Peeters, 1993)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, but the details of its mating system are unknown.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47FBFA13F0FAAF" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF47FBFA1280FBCF" bold="true" box="[199,741,1052,1077]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Phylogenetic and taxonomic considerations.</emphasis>
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FD72FBFA13D9FBCF" box="[754,956,1052,1077]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FD72FBFA13D9FBCF" box="[754,956,1052,1077]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
was erected by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FB0AFBFA151DFBCF" author="Donisthorpe, H." box="[1162,1400,1052,1077]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="433 - 475" refId="ref139650" refString="Donisthorpe, H. (1943 a) The ants (Hym., Formicidae) of Waigeu Island, North Dutch New Guinea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11 (10), 433 - 475." type="journal article" year="1943">Donisthorpe (1943a)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
to house his new species
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FE1AFBA71253FBA2" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityYear="1943" box="[410,566,1087,1112]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="verecundae">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FE1AFBA71253FBA2" box="[410,566,1087,1112]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. verecundae</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, known from a single male specimen. He believed it to be closely related to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF17FB831176FB86" box="[151,275,1125,1148]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Neoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF17FB831176FB86" box="[151,275,1125,1148]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Neoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, based on “various characters,” though he didn’t explain how or why he came to this conclusion in any additional detail, and he noted numerous differences between the genera. Donisthorpe also erected a new section of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF17FB4A116FFB3F" box="[151,266,1196,1221]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Ponerinae">Ponerinae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, Exeuponerinae, to house
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FDB1FB4A129EFB3F" box="[561,763,1196,1221]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FDB1FB4A129EFB3F" box="[561,763,1196,1221]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, as its males have retractile genitalia and do not correspond to any of the sections erected by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FD89FB3612C1FB12" author="Emery, C." box="[521,676,1231,1256]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="1 - 125" refId="ref141346" refString="Emery, C. (1911) Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Ponerinae. Genera Insectorum, 118, 1 - 125." type="journal article" year="1911">Emery (1911)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
based on male and larval characters.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FBCAFB29149DFB12" author="Wilson, E. O." box="[1098,1272,1231,1256]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="303 - 371" refId="ref168683" refString="Wilson, E. O. (1958 c) Studies on the ant fauna of Melanesia III. Rhytidoponera in western Melanesia and the Moluccas. IV. The tribe Ponerini. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 119, 303 - 371." type="journal article" year="1958">Wilson (1958c)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
found that the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF17FB131150FAF7" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityYear="1943" box="[151,309,1268,1293]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="verecundae">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF17FB131150FAF7" box="[151,309,1268,1293]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. verecundae</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
<typeStatus id="546556B2A6FA2CA7FEBFFB12110AFAF6" box="[319,367,1268,1292]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">type</typeStatus>
|
||
was extremely similar to males tentatively associated with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FBA5FB1314D7FAF7" baseAuthorityName="Sommer & Holldobler" baseAuthorityYear="1992" box="[1061,1202,1268,1293]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FBA5FB1314D7FAF7" box="[1061,1202,1268,1293]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(then
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FA80FB121160FACA" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FA80FB121160FACA" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera tridentata</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
), and synonymized
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FE7CFAF112A3FACA" box="[508,710,1303,1328]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FE7CFAF112A3FACA" box="[508,710,1303,1328]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
with
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC94FAF114EAFACA" box="[788,1167,1303,1328]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC94FAF113D1FACA" box="[788,948,1303,1328]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Bothroponera</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC45FAF114EAFACA" box="[965,1167,1303,1328]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Pseudoneoponera</taxonomicName>
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
later became a junior synonym of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FEA3FADA11A7FAAF" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1900" box="[291,450,1340,1365]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FEA3FADA11A7FAAF" box="[291,450,1340,1365]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pachycondyla</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
along with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FDC6FADA13F4FAAF" authority="(Brown, 1973)" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[582,913,1340,1365]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FDC6FADA1287FAAF" box="[582,738,1340,1365]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FD71FADA13ECFAAF" author="Brown, W. L. Jr." box="[753,905,1340,1365]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="161 - 185" refId="ref134603" refString="Brown, W. L. Jr. (1973) A comparison of the Hylean and Congo-West African rain forest ant faunas. In: Meggers, B. J., Ayensu, E. S. & Duckworth, W. D. (Eds.), Tropical forest ecosystems in Africa and South America: a comparative review. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C., pp. 161 - 185." type="book chapter" year="1973">Brown, 1973</bibRefCitation>
|
||
)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47FAB91122F9B5" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
Based on Wilson’s comparison of the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FDF9FA871373FA82" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityYear="1943" box="[633,790,1375,1400]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="verecundae">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FDF9FA871373FA82" box="[633,790,1375,1400]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. verecundae</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
<typeStatus id="546556B2A6FA2CA7FC9FFA86132AFA82" box="[799,847,1376,1400]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">type</typeStatus>
|
||
to males of
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC60FAB91577FA82" box="[992,1298,1375,1400]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
“
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC68FAB914F1FA82" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[1000,1172,1375,1400]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Bothroponera</taxonomicName>
|
||
”
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB24FAB91577FA82" box="[1188,1298,1375,1400]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tridentata">tridentata</taxonomicName>
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
, we believe that
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF4BFA63110FFA67" authorityName="Donisthorpe" authorityYear="1943" box="[203,362,1412,1437]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="verecundae">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF4BFA63110FFA67" box="[203,362,1412,1437]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. verecundae</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is a member of a cluster of species formerly considered to be in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FBECFA62156DFA67" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[1132,1288,1412,1437]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FBECFA62156DFA67" box="[1132,1288,1412,1437]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
. These taxa, which form a geographically compact group, are characterized by their robust builds, coarse sculpturing, shaggy pilosity, obsolete metanotal groove, semicircular petiolar node, and longitudinally striate tergite A3. Based on both molecular and morphological evidence, we are removing this group of species to its own genus. As the
|
||
<typeStatus id="546556B2A6FA2CA7FA95FA161520F9F2" box="[1301,1349,1520,1544]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">type</typeStatus>
|
||
species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF39F9F21130F9D7" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[185,341,1556,1581]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF39F9F21130F9D7" box="[185,341,1556,1581]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FEE9F9F31192F9D6" baseAuthorityName="Roger" baseAuthorityYear="1860" box="[361,503,1557,1580]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Ponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="pumicosa">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FEE9F9F31192F9D6" box="[361,503,1557,1580]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">B. pumicosa</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
) does not belong to this cluster of species,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC7CF9F214A3F9D7" box="[1020,1222,1556,1581]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC7CF9F214A3F9D7" box="[1020,1222,1556,1581]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
becomes the only available name.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8B61E810A6FA2CA7FF47F9BA1271F895" blockId="133.[151,1440,151,1904]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EF4F95E1A6FA2CA7FF47F9BA11E2F98F" author="Schmidt, C." box="[199,391,1628,1653]" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" pagination="201 - 250" refId="ref161753" refString="Schmidt, C. (2013) Molecular phylogenetics of ponerine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). Zootaxa, 3647 (2), 201 - 250. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3647.2.1" type="journal article" year="2013">Schmidt's (2013)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
molecular phylogeny places
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FD55F9BB1325F98F" baseAuthorityName="Jerdon" baseAuthorityYear="1851" box="[725,832,1628,1653]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rufipes">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FD55F9BB1325F98F" box="[725,832,1628,1653]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">P. rufipes</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
with strong support within the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB29F9BA1537F98F" box="[1193,1362,1628,1653]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Odontomachus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB29F9BA1537F98F" box="[1193,1362,1628,1653]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Odontomachus</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group but does not resolve its sister group. It is certainly not closely related to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC60F999141AF962" baseAuthorityName="Emery" baseAuthorityYear="1900" box="[992,1151,1663,1688]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC60F999141AF962" box="[992,1151,1663,1688]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pachycondyla</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB29F9671543F962" box="[1193,1318,1665,1688]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Neoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB29F9671543F962" box="[1193,1318,1665,1688]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Neoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(to which Donisthorpe thought it was related), but a sister relationship with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC2FF942142EF947" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[943,1099,1700,1725]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC2FF942142EF947" box="[943,1099,1700,1725]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
or
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FBFCF942157BF947" authorityName=", Bolton & Fisher" authorityYear="2008" box="[1148,1310,1700,1725]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FBFCF942157BF947" box="[1148,1310,1700,1725]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Phrynoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
cannot be rejected. Morphologically,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FE4CF92112F3F91A" box="[460,662,1735,1760]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FE4CF92112F3F91A" box="[460,662,1735,1760]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
most closely resembles
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FC33F921142AF91A" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[947,1103,1735,1760]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FC33F921142AF91A" box="[947,1103,1735,1760]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FB0BF9211548F91A" authorityName=", Bolton & Fisher" authorityYear="2008" box="[1163,1325,1735,1760]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FB0BF9211548F91A" box="[1163,1325,1735,1760]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Phrynoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and to a lesser extent
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FEA8F90A11B5F8FF" box="[296,464,1772,1797]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Streblognathus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FEA8F90A11B5F8FF" box="[296,464,1772,1797]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Streblognathus</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, though there are no obvious synapomorphies linking these genera (see the discussions under
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FF60F8E91119F8D2" baseAuthorityName="Brown" baseAuthorityYear="1973" box="[224,380,1807,1832]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Bothroponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FF60F8E91119F8D2" box="[224,380,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Bothroponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FE39F8E9123EF8D2" authorityName=", Bolton & Fisher" authorityYear="2008" box="[441,603,1807,1832]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Phrynoponera" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FE39F8E9123EF8D2" box="[441,603,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Phrynoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
for more). Even if
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4CDE9393A6FA2CA7FCC1F8E9146EF8D2" box="[833,1035,1807,1832]" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudoneoponera" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="133" pageNumber="134" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B9AA3402A6FA2CA7FCC1F8E9146EF8D2" box="[833,1035,1807,1832]" italics="true" pageId="133" pageNumber="134">Pseudoneoponera</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is found to be the sister to one or more of these genera, they are morphologically and behaviorally distinct enough and phylogenetically old enough to warrant separate generic status.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |