529 lines
68 KiB
XML
529 lines
68 KiB
XML
<document id="BBCF594A9E2789C25096A4A3598546F8" ID-DOI="10.1206/3997.1" ID-ISSN="0003-0082" IM.bibliography_approvedBy="diego" IM.illustrations_approvedBy="diego" IM.materialsCitations_approvedBy="felipe" IM.metadata_approvedBy="felipe" IM.tables_approvedBy="diego" IM.taxonomicNames_approvedBy="felipe" IM.treatments_approvedBy="diego" checkinTime="1685973003912" checkinUser="felipe" docAuthor="Grimaldi, David A. & Richenbacher, Courtney" docDate="2023" docId="03CBDC48D318CD7AFDADFF71112EFDB9" docLanguage="en" docName="AmMusNovit.2023.3997.1-28.pdf" docOrigin="American Museum Novitates 2023 (3997)" docSource="https://bioone.org/journals/american-museum-novitates/volume-2023/issue-3997/3997.1/Exceptional-Species-Diversity-of-Drosophilidae-Diptera-in-a-Neotropical-Forest/10.1206/3997.1.full" docStyle="DocumentStyle:26C3580A17D4BBE58BD8D8AC6AE09AC4.6:AmMusNovit.2010-.journal_article" docStyleId="26C3580A17D4BBE58BD8D8AC6AE09AC4" docStyleName="AmMusNovit.2010-.journal_article" docStyleVersion="6" docTitle="Drosophila" docType="treatment" docVersion="3" lastPageNumber="16" masterDocId="FFF2A430D314CD6BFFF8FF90156DFFB8" masterDocTitle="Exceptional Species Diversity of Drosophilidae (Diptera) in a Neotropical Forest" masterLastPageNumber="28" masterPageNumber="1" pageNumber="13" updateTime="1708518839724" updateUser="diego" zenodo-license-document="CC-BY-4.0">
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<mods:title id="4E3D16CF4AEC5A4033681EC323A1D271">Exceptional Species Diversity of Drosophilidae (Diptera) in a Neotropical Forest</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="9C805FA29BDB1034D59C2C5F85D379DE">Grimaldi, David A.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="BB57B28C75B0B5C14C98114609606170">Richenbacher, Courtney</mods:namePart>
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<mods:title id="7248440C7B877303E8C05C874C93E9DA">American Museum Novitates</mods:title>
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<mods:date id="2AF646528A267DCA0ED471A42365F86C">2023</mods:date>
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<mods:number id="F81CD7631A3CFDABBF95CF6274784DAE">2023-05-10</mods:number>
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<mods:number id="CC35EEBE3E8F73825C46997C30EDD60D">2023</mods:number>
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<mods:url id="3032C21E584ADD728927D8E84F4D2BC9">https://bioone.org/journals/american-museum-novitates/volume-2023/issue-3997/3997.1/Exceptional-Species-Diversity-of-Drosophilidae-Diptera-in-a-Neotropical-Forest/10.1206/3997.1.full</mods:url>
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<subSubSection id="C3783ED5D318CD67FDADFF7117BEFF43" box="[597,723,225,251]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FDADFF7117BEFF43" blockId="12.[597,723,225,251]" box="[597,723,225,251]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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<heading id="D095DA32D318CD67FDADFF7117BEFF43" box="[597,723,225,251]" centered="true" fontSize="11" level="2" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" reason="5">
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FDADFF7117BEFF43" ID-CoL="9CHYW" box="[597,723,225,251]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDADFF7117BEFF43" box="[597,723,225,251]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<subSubSection id="C3783ED5D318CD7AFF64FE87112EFDB9" lastPageId="17" lastPageNumber="18" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" type="multiple">
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF64FE87111AFE53" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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SUBGENUS
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FEE4FE8714F4FE89" box="[284,409,279,305]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEE4FE8714F4FE89" box="[284,409,279,305]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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||
</taxonomicName>
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(fig. 6): As expected, the number of
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FCC5FE8716D7FE89" box="[829,954,279,305]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FCC5FE8716D7FE89" box="[829,954,279,305]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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||
</taxonomicName>
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individuals was larger than for any other group in the study, some
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<specimenCount id="9D64A6D7D318CD67FD7BFEAC1659FEEE" box="[643,820,316,343]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" type="generic">659 specimens</specimenCount>
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. Neotropical
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FC2DFEAC113EFEEE" box="[981,1107,316,342]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FC2DFEAC113EFEEE" box="[981,1107,316,342]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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||
</taxonomicName>
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||
are very diverse and very abundant at fallen fruits and flowers, on leaf litter and forest fungi. Although specimens were not databased as such, species groups represented in the samples include the
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FF96FE3C1594FE7E" authorityName="Duda" authorityYear="1927" box="[110,249,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="annulimana">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF96FE3C1594FE7E" box="[110,249,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">annulimana</emphasis>
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||
</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FEFEFE3C141BFE7E" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1921" box="[262,374,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bromeliae">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEFEFE3C141BFE7E" box="[262,374,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">bromeliae</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FE7CFE3C1499FE7E" authorityName="Schiner" authorityYear="1868" box="[388,500,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="calloptera">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FE7CFE3C1499FE7E" box="[388,500,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">calloptera</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FDF9FE3C1702FE7E" authorityName="Patterson & Mainland" authorityYear="1944" box="[513,623,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="canalinea">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDF9FE3C1702FE7E" box="[513,623,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">canalinea</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FD84FE3C17A1FE7E" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[636,716,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="cardini">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FD84FE3C17A1FE7E" box="[636,716,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">cardini</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FD22FE3D1650FE7E" authorityName="Patterson & Mainland" authorityYear="1944" box="[730,829,429,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="castanea">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FD22FE3D1650FE7E" box="[730,829,429,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">castanea</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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||
,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FCB2FE3C16A9FE7E" authorityName="Frey" authorityYear="1918" box="[842,964,428,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="flavopilosa">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FCB2FE3C16A9FE7E" box="[842,964,428,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">flavopilosa</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FC29FE3D1147FE7E" authorityName="Dobzhansky & Pavan" authorityYear="1943" box="[977,1066,429,454]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="guarani">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FC29FE3D1147FE7E" box="[977,1066,429,454]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">guarani</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FBC0FE3C15D6FE53" authorityName="Duda" authorityYear="1927" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="mesophragmatica">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FBC0FE3C15D6FE53" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">mesophragmatica</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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,
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF31FE411423FE53" box="[201,334,465,491]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">onycophora</emphasis>
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,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FEA4FE4114C7FE53" authorityName="Wollaston" authorityYear="1858" box="[348,426,465,491]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="repleta">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEA4FE4114C7FE53" box="[348,426,465,491]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">repleta</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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, and
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FE16FE421702FE53" authorityName="Loew" authorityYear="1862" box="[494,623,466,491]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="tripunctata">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FE16FE421702FE53" box="[494,623,466,491]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">tripunctata</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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groups, as well as many ungrouped species.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF64FE6714B7FD39" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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The most abundant species were captured by diverse methods. For example, the 20 most abundant ones were captured using an average of four to five sampling methods, the next 20 an average of 2.8 sampling methods. Seventy percent of the rarest species (<
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<specimenCount id="9D64A6D7D318CD67FC1DFDD1111AFDE3" box="[997,1143,577,603]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" type="generic">4 specimens</specimenCount>
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) were captured only in Malaise traps.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF65FD1C11EBFCAE" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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There were four very surprising results. First, species diversity is far greater than expected. With 141 species,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FEFBFD211413FD73" box="[259,382,689,715]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEFBFD211413FD73" box="[259,382,689,715]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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is 2.4× more diverse than the second-most diverse group at Zurquí,
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FF94FD47158CFD49" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[108,225,727,753]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF94FD47158CFD49" box="[108,225,727,753]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Zygothrica</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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(see below). Many of the species were rare: 81 species (57%) are represented by five or fewer specimens. Possible explanations for such rare diversity are provided in the Discussion.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF64FCB1116DFBF9" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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Second, Malaise traps captured
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDE0FCB117E6FC83" box="[536,651,801,827]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">all but six</emphasis>
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of the 141 species, and nearly half (68 species) were collected exclusively in Malaise traps. Conversely, bait traps captured only 25 species (17%), as well as a small proportion of the individuals. It needs to be emphasized that only a small portion of the two most abundant
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDB9FC021799FC13" box="[577,756,913,939]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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D. (
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FD93FC011781FC13" box="[619,748,913,939]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Drosophila</taxonomicName>
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)
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</emphasis>
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, sp. 1 and sp. 2, were mounted, so their total abundance is undercounted here (fig. 6). This is, nonetheless, a stark example of how many
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FF4DFC4C14E1FC4E" box="[181,396,988,1014]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF4DFC4C145EFC4E" box="[181,307,988,1014]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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species
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</taxonomicName>
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are missed by using just the standard collecting method of drosophilists, bait trapping. This explains the relatively low diversity of
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FCBDFB9116AEFBA3" box="[837,963,1025,1051]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FCBDFB9116AEFBA3" box="[837,963,1025,1051]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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</taxonomicName>
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in other surveys that used bait trapping exclusively (e.g.,
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<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FDE9FBB71664FBF9" author="Monteiro, L. S. & A. C. L. Garcia & G. F. Oliveira & C. Rohde" box="[529,777,1063,1089]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="265 - 273" refId="ref12501" refString="Monteiro, L. S., A. C. L. Garcia, G. F. Oliveira, and C. Rohde. 2016. High diversity of Drosophilidae in high-altitude wet forests in northeastern Brazil. Neotropical Entomology 45 (3): 265 - 273." type="journal article" year="2016">Monteiro et al., 2016</bibRefCitation>
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||
;
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||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FCEDFBB7169EFBF9" author="Duarte, L. B. & M. S. Gottschalk & L. J. Robe" box="[789,1011,1063,1089]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="29 - 35" refId="ref11145" refString="Duarte, L. B., M. S. Gottschalk and L. J. Robe. 2018. Assemblage of drosophilids (Diptera, Drosophilidae) inhabiting flooded and nonflooded areas in the extreme South of Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 62: 29 - 35." type="journal article" year="2018">Duarte et al., 2018</bibRefCitation>
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).
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF65FBDC1689FA99" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Third, a significant number of species were captured at light traps (28, or 19%) and at emergence traps (19 species, or 13%) (nine species were captured at both). For species captured at lights there appeared to be a strong relationship between overall abundance of a species and the number at light: some of the more common species had larger proportions of individuals at light—a relationship that did not seem to pertain to the emergence-trap samples. Species in emergence traps were probably breeding in humus, on mycelia, or fallen, decaying fruits and flowers.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF64FABC1498F9B9" blockId="12.[107,1214,279,1537]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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Fourth, there were no specimens of the invasive
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<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FD1FFABC16ADFAFE" box="[743,960,1324,1350]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
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||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FD1FFABC1608FAFE" box="[743,869,1324,1350]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
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species
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</taxonomicName>
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||
that are so common worldwide, despite the Zurquí site being at the very edge of disturbed land and partially surrounded by pasture. Invasives found in abundance in Costa Rican lowlands include
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FB59FAE714C3FA0E" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="melanogaster" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FB59FAE711D1FA28" box="[1185,1212,1399,1424]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">D.</emphasis>
|
||
(
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF8EFA0C146DFA0E" box="[118,256,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
)
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEEDFA0C14C3FA0E" box="[277,430,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">melanogaster</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FE47FA0C174BFA0E" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1919" box="[447,550,1436,1462]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="simulans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FE47FA0C174BFA0E" box="[447,550,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">simulans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FDCFFA0C17B4FA0E" authorityName="Parshad & Paika" authorityYear="1965" box="[567,729,1436,1462]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="malerkotliana">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDCFFA0C17B4FA0E" box="[567,729,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">malerkotliana</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FCD9FA0C1619FA0E" baseAuthorityName="Matsumura" baseAuthorityYear="1931" box="[801,884,1436,1462]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="suzukii">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FCD9FA0C1619FA0E" box="[801,884,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">suzukii</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, as well as
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FBFAFA0D158AFA63" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1921" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="immigrans" subGenus="Drosophila">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FBFAFA0D117AFA0E" box="[1026,1047,1437,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">D</emphasis>
|
||
. (
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FBCAFA0C11DCFA0E" box="[1074,1201,1436,1462]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
|
||
)
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF94FA52158AFA63" box="[108,231,1474,1499]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">immigrans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FF0EFA511459FA63" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1921" box="[246,308,1473,1499]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hydei">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF0EFA511459FA63" box="[246,308,1473,1499]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">hydei</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FE8FFA5114A1FA63" box="[375,460,1473,1499]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FE8FFA5114A5FA63" authorityName="Wollaston" authorityYear="1858" box="[375,456,1473,1499]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="repleta">repleta</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</emphasis>
|
||
The wet, misty, cool weather at Zurquí probably limits the altitudinal dispersal of these species.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED318CD67FF64F98F1604F976" blockId="12.[108,1214,1567,1743]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">
|
||
SUBGENUS
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FED8F98F14C5F981" ID-CoL="8VVTH" box="[288,424,1567,1593]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FED8F98F14C5F981" box="[288,424,1567,1593]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(fig. 7): This group is taxonomically treated as a subgenus of the genus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FF41F9D4145AF9E6" ID-CoL="9CHYW" box="[185,311,1604,1630]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FF41F9D4145AF9E6" box="[185,311,1604,1630]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Drosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, even though
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FE1DF9D41703F9E6" ID-CoL="8VVTH" box="[485,622,1604,1630]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FE1DF9D41703F9E6" box="[485,622,1604,1630]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and the nominal subgenus are not closely related based on both morphology (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FE3DF9F917D2F93B" author="Throckmorton, L. H." box="[453,703,1641,1667]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="207 - 343" refId="ref13314" refString="Throckmorton, L. H. 1962. X. The problem of phylogeny in the genus Drosophila. Studies in Genetics II. University of Texas Publications 6205: 207 - 343." type="journal article" year="1962">Throckmorton, 1962</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FD35F9F91665F93C" author="Throckmorton, L. H." box="[717,776,1641,1668]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="422 - 469" refId="ref13348" refString="Throckmorton, L. H. 1975. The phylogeny, ecology and geography of Drosophila. Handbook of genetics, vol. 3 (17): 422 - 469." type="journal article" year="1975">1975</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FCEDF9F916B5F93B" author="Grimaldi, D." box="[789,984,1641,1667]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="1 - 139" refId="ref11440" refString="Grimaldi, D. 1990 a. A phylogenetic, revised classification of genera in the Drosophilidae (Diptera). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 197: 1 - 139." type="journal article" year="1990">Grimaldi, 1990a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) and genetics (e.g.,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD318CD67FF94F91F145FF911" author="Finet, C." box="[108,306,1679,1705]" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" pagination="179" refId="ref11286" refString="Finet, C., et al. 2021. DrosoPhyla: resources for drosophilid phylogeny and systematics. Genome Biology and Evolution 2021 Aug; 13 (8): evab 179." type="journal article" year="2021">Finet et al., 2021</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FEBEF91F14A3F911" ID-CoL="8VVTH" box="[326,462,1679,1705]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FEBEF91F14A3F911" box="[326,462,1679,1705]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is a monophyletic group, as are the two species groups in it that are endemic to the neotropics (the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FDF5F924171BF976" ID-CoL="8BXKH" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[525,630,1716,1742]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="willistoni">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FDF5F924171BF976" box="[525,630,1716,1742]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">willistoni</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD318CD67FD49F924166DF976" ID-CoL="8BXHF" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[689,768,1716,1742]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="13" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="saltans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD318CD67FD49F924166DF976" box="[689,768,1716,1742]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="13">saltans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
groups).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED319CD66FF64FF711402FCBE" blockId="13.[108,1214,225,1223]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">
|
||
Species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FEE4FF7114C8FF43" ID-CoL="8VVTH" box="[284,421,225,251]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FEE4FF7114C8FF43" box="[284,421,225,251]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are classified into seven major species groups and several smaller ones. The center of diversity is the paleotropics, especially Southeast Asia and New
|
||
<collectingCountry id="F3752DCED319CD66FB98FE9711D5FE99" box="[1120,1208,263,289]" name="Guinea-Bissau" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Guinea</collectingCountry>
|
||
, where hundreds of species in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FE09FEBC17E4FEFE" ID-CoL="8BXCZ" box="[497,649,300,326]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="melanogaster">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FE09FEBC17E4FEFE" box="[497,649,300,326]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">melanogaster</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FD3BFEBD1640FEFE" ID-CoL="8BXDC" authorityName="Meijere" authorityYear="1916" box="[707,813,301,326]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="montium">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FD3BFEBD1640FEFE" box="[707,813,301,326]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">montium</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
species groups occur. Neotropical diversity is relatively modest, with three species groups (two of them endemic):
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FBF0FEC1111DFED3" ID-CoL="8BXKH" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[1032,1136,337,363]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="willistoni">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FBF0FEC1111DFED3" box="[1032,1136,337,363]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">willistoni</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group (neotropical only; 24 species total,
|
||
<quantity id="4C9AC0BBD319CD66FDFEFEE7172CFE29" box="[518,577,375,401]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.048" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" unit="in" value="12.0">12 in</quantity>
|
||
Central America),
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FCDFFEE7161BFE29" ID-CoL="8BXHF" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[807,886,375,401]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="saltans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FCDFFEE7161BFE29" box="[807,886,375,401]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">saltans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group (neotropical only, 23 species total,
|
||
<quantity id="4C9AC0BBD319CD66FEF4FE0C1424FE0E" box="[268,329,412,438]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.54" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" unit="in" value="10.0">10 in</quantity>
|
||
Central America), and the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FD6EFE0C1782FE0E" ID-CoL="8BXF7" authorityName="Fallen" authorityYear="1823" box="[662,751,412,438]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="obscura">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FD6EFE0C1782FE0E" box="[662,751,412,438]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">obscura</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group (a mostly Holarctic group of 45 species, five of them in Central America). All three groups have been intensively surveyed for studies in evolutionary biology (e.g.,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FDD4FE77161FFDB9" author="Lakovaara, S. & A. Saura" box="[556,882,487,513]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="1 - 59" refId="ref12300" refString="Lakovaara, S., and A. Saura. 1982. Evolution and speciation in the Drosophila obscura group. In M. Ashburner et al. (editors), The genetics and biology of Drosophila, vol. 3 b: 1 - 59. London: Academic Press." type="book chapter" year="1982">Lakovaara and Saura, 1982</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FC78FE7711D4FDB9" author="Ehrman, L. & J. R. Powell" box="[896,1209,487,513]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="193 - 226" refId="ref11196" refString="Ehrman, L. and J. R. Powell. 1982. The Drosophila willistoni species group. In M. Ashburner et al. (editors), The genetics and biology of Drosophila vol. 3 b: 193 - 226. London: Academic Press." type="book chapter" year="1982">Ehrman and Powell, 1982</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FF94FD9D1420FD9E" author="Roman, B. E. & D. J. Santana & C. Prediger & L. Madi-Ravazzi" box="[108,333,524,551]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="0266710" refId="ref12997" refString="Roman, B. E., D. J. Santana, C. Prediger, and L. Madi-Ravazzi. 2022. Phylogeny of the Drosophila saltans group (Diptera: Drosophilidae) based on morphological and molecular evidence. PloS One 17 (4): e 0266710." type="journal article" year="2022">Roman et al., 2022</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), so there appear to be few undescribed Neotropical species. The
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FBACFD9C11D0FD9E" ID-CoL="8BXKH" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[1108,1213,524,550]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="willistoni">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FBACFD9C11D0FD9E" box="[1108,1213,524,550]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">willistoni</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FF5AFDA1159CFDF3" ID-CoL="8BXHF" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[162,241,561,587]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="saltans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FF5AFDA1159CFDF3" box="[162,241,561,587]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">saltans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
groups are sister groups; species in both groups breed in fallen, decaying fruits. Some species in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FE9BFDC714A1FDC9" ID-CoL="8BXKH" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[355,460,599,625]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="willistoni">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FE9BFDC714A1FDC9" box="[355,460,599,625]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">willistoni</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group can be very abundant at fruit falls in neotropical forests (e.g.,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FF52FDEC14FFFD2E" ID-CoL="8BXDJ" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[170,402,636,662]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="nebulosa">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FF52FDEC14FFFD2E" box="[170,402,636,662]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Drosophila nebulosa</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
);
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FE52FDEC1495FD2E" ID-CoL="8BXHF" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[426,504,636,662]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="saltans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FE52FDEC1495FD2E" box="[426,504,636,662]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">saltans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group flies are rarely abundant. No
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FC60FDEC169DFD2E" ID-CoL="8BXF7" authorityName="Fallen" authorityYear="1823" box="[920,1008,636,662]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="obscura">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FC60FDEC169DFD2E" box="[920,1008,636,662]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">obscura</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group specimens were collected at Zurquí despite the appropriate elevation; these flies prefer the higher, cooler altitudes like Zurquí. Of a total of 27 species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FD4CFD571650FD59" ID-CoL="8VVTH" box="[692,829,711,737]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FD4CFD571650FD59" box="[692,829,711,737]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
known for Central America 16 were found at Zurquí.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED319CD66FF65FC811680FB7E" blockId="13.[108,1214,225,1223]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FF65FC811448FC93" box="[157,293,785,811]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FF65FC811448FC93" box="[157,293,785,811]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
were extremely abundant at Zurquí (N =
|
||
<specimenCount id="9D64A6D7D319CD66FCDDFC8116B5FC93" box="[805,984,785,812]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" type="generic">551 specimens</specimenCount>
|
||
), but this is due to two very abundant species (spp. 1 and 2: fig. 7), which comprised 72% of all
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FC1FFCA71102FCE9" box="[999,1135,823,849]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FC1FFCA71102FCE9" box="[999,1135,823,849]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
specimens. Again, it needs to be emphasized that only a small portion of these two species were mounted, so the abundances of these species are underestimates. The remaining 14 species ranged from 40 individuals to one (mean of
|
||
<specimenCount id="9D64A6D7D319CD66FD88FC371660FC79" box="[624,781,935,961]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" type="generic">10 specimens</specimenCount>
|
||
each). Four species are in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FB95FC3711D1FC79" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1916" box="[1133,1212,935,961]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="saltans">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FB95FC3711D1FC79" box="[1133,1212,935,961]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">saltans</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group. The abundance distribution of this group, as a result, has an extremely steep drop to the base of the tail (fig. 7). A very unexpected result was how few
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FC94FC611698FBB3" box="[876,1013,1009,1035]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FC94FC611698FBB3" box="[876,1013,1009,1035]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
specimens were captured in fruit-baited traps (only 4% of the individuals in three species), and how many were collected in Malaise traps (60% of the individuals in all species), as well as in emergence traps (11% of individuals belonging to seven species), and by sweeping (19%, six species). The finding of seven species in emergence traps is entirely unexpected, since the widespread view is that species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FEE5FB3C14C8FB7E" box="[285,421,1196,1222]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FEE5FB3C14C8FB7E" box="[285,421,1196,1222]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
breed in decaying fruits, not leaf litter or humus.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED319CD66FF65FB74113DF9F6" blockId="13.[108,1213,1252,1615]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">
|
||
MYCOPHAGOUS GENERA (fig. 8): The data from Zurquí have been combined in the histogram for five genera:
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FE91FA991772FA9B" box="[361,543,1289,1315]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Hirtodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FE91FA991772FA9B" box="[361,543,1289,1315]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Hirtodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(176 world species, 28 Neotropical, 12 at Zurquí),
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FB8DFA9A158BFAF1" authorityName="Oldenberg" authorityYear="1914" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Mycodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FB8DFA9A158BFAF1" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Mycodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(132 world, 12 Neotropical, one at Zurquí),
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FCE6FABF1681FAF1" authorityName="Duda" authorityYear="1925" box="[798,1004,1327,1353]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Paraliodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FCE6FABF1681FAF1" box="[798,1004,1327,1353]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Paraliodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(five species, all Neotropical, two at Zurquí),
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FE33FAC417DBFAD6" authorityName="Duda" authorityYear="1924" box="[459,694,1364,1390]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Paramycodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FE33FAC417DBFAD6" box="[459,694,1364,1390]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Paramycodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(16 world species, four Neotropical, six at Zurquí), and an undescribed genus, “X,” which is being described in a separate paper (Grimaldi et al, in prep.). These form a well-defined monophyletic group (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FCA2FA0F1170FA01" author="Grimaldi, D." box="[858,1053,1439,1465]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="1 - 139" refId="ref11440" refString="Grimaldi, D. 1990 a. A phylogenetic, revised classification of genera in the Drosophilidae (Diptera). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 197: 1 - 139." type="journal article" year="1990">
|
||
Grimaldi, 1990
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FBE8FA0F1170FA01" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[1040,1053,1439,1465]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="1 - 31" refId="ref11475" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1990 b. Revision of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae), part II. The first African species, two new Indo-Pacific groups, and the bilineata and samoaensis species groups. American Museum Novitates 2964: 1 - 31." type="journal article" year="1990">a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
, 1990b;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FB87FA0F1599FA66" author="Finet, C." pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="179" refId="ref11286" refString="Finet, C., et al. 2021. DrosoPhyla: resources for drosophilid phylogeny and systematics. Genome Biology and Evolution 2021 Aug; 13 (8): evab 179." type="journal article" year="2021">Finet et al., 2021</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), which feed, mate, and breed in macrofungi (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FCDDFA5416B3FA66" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[805,990,1476,1502]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="103 - 268" refId="ref11404" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1987. Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 186 (2): 103 - 268." type="journal article" year="1987">Grimaldi, 1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FC14FA5411D4FA66" author="Valer, F. B. & E. Bernardi & M. F. Mendes & M. L. Blauth & M. S. Gottschalk" box="[1004,1209,1476,1503]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="705 - 718" refId="ref13440" refString="Valer, F. B., E. Bernardi, M. F. Mendes, M. L. Blauth, and M. S. Gottschalk. 2016. Diversity and associations between Drosophilidae (Diptera) species and Basidiomycetes in a Neotropical forest. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 88: 705 - 718." type="journal article" year="2016">Valer et al., 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FF94FA791424F9BB" author="Policha, T." box="[108,329,1513,1540]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="457 - 470" refId="ref12833" refString="Policha, T., et al. 2019. Do Dracula orchids exploit guilds of fungus visiting flies? New perspectives on a mushroom-mimic. Ecological Entomology 44 (4): 457 - 470." type="journal article" year="2019">Policha et al., 2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FEACFA791713F9BB" author="Santa-Brigida, R." box="[340,638,1513,1540]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="20195920" refId="ref13097" refString="Santa-Brigida, R., et al. 2019. Mycophagous Drosophilidae (Diptera) guild and their hosts in the Brazilian Amazon. Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia 59: e 20195920." type="journal article" year="2019">Santa-Brígida et al., 2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The Zurquí sample is rather modest (
|
||
<specimenCount id="9D64A6D7D319CD66FBBCFA7915C3F991" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" type="generic">147 specimens</specimenCount>
|
||
, belonging to 26 species total).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FDC1F99F17D8F991" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[569,693,1551,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FDC1F99F17D8F991" box="[569,693,1551,1577]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is also in this group of genera (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD319CD66FBBFF99F15D8F9F6" author="Grimaldi, D." pageId="13" pageNumber="14" pagination="1 - 139" refId="ref11440" refString="Grimaldi, D. 1990 a. A phylogenetic, revised classification of genera in the Drosophilidae (Diptera). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 197: 1 - 139." type="journal article" year="1990">Grimaldi, 1990a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), but it is treated separately because it was so abundant and diverse at Zurquí.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<caption id="DF1D3DD6D319CD66FF94F91D14FFF965" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" startId="13.[108,150,1677,1698]" targetBox="[157,1168,227,1696]" targetPageId="14" targetType="figure">
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED319CD66FF94F91D14FFF965" blockId="13.[108,1213,1675,1757]" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">
|
||
FIG. 7. Species abundances by various collecting methods of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FD27F91B1626F91B" box="[735,843,1675,1699]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FD27F91B1626F91B" box="[735,843,1675,1699]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Drosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, subgenus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD319CD66FC45F91B115FF91B" box="[957,1074,1675,1699]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="14" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Sophophora">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD319CD66FC45F91B115FF91B" box="[957,1074,1675,1699]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="14">Sophophora</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Abundances for species 1 and 2 were much higher since this graph includes only specimens that were mounted from the bait traps, not all specimens.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD64FF64FF71176BFD04" blockId="15.[108,1215,225,700]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
Sampling these flies at Zurquí involved most of the techniques employed: Malaise traps (20 of the 26 species), hand collecting (eight species), flight-intercept traps (eight species), emergence traps (seven species), and light traps (three species). Malaise traps did not capture a substantial majority of specimens; in fact, six of the 26 species were captured only by other means. We are inclined to believe that adults of these mycophagous species do not disperse far and may settle around a site of fungus for much of their brief lives. Collecting by hand yielded most of the specimens, and these were comprised largely (43% of individuals) of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FD83FE5116EDFE63" box="[635,896,449,476]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Paraliodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="undefined-1">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FD83FE511654FE63" box="[635,825,449,475]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Paraliodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
spp. 1
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and 2. The flies collected by hand were caught on
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FE9FFE7717DEFDB9" box="[359,691,487,513]" class="Holothuroidea" family="Synaptidae" genus="Auricularia" kingdom="Animalia" order="Apodida" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Echinodermata" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FE9FFE77148BFDB9" box="[359,486,487,513]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Auricularia</emphasis>
|
||
(Auriculariaceae)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FD38FE77169BFDB9" authorityName="P.A.Karsten" authorityYear="1881" box="[704,1014,487,513]" class="Agaricomycetes" family="Ganodermataceae" genus="Ganoderma" kingdom="Fungi" order="Polyporales" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Basidiomycota" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FD38FE771628FDB9" box="[704,837,487,513]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Ganoderma</emphasis>
|
||
(Polyporaceae)
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and an undetermined genus of polypore. The undescribed genus “X” is known to feed on, and probably breed in, particular genera of ascomycetes, based on extensive observations elsewhere. The Zurquí data reinforce our impression that thorough sampling of these genera requires collecting them on their hosts.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FF94FDEC1475FD2E" box="[108,280,636,662]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Hirtodrosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FF94FDEC1475FD2E" box="[108,280,636,662]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Hirtodrosophila</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
has what appears to be the largest numbers of undescribed Neotropical species in this group of genera after
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FE75FD311492FD03" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[397,511,673,699]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FE75FD311492FD03" box="[397,511,673,699]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD64FF64FD491468FCDC" blockId="15.[107,1214,729,1764]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FF64FD49147BFD4B" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[156,278,729,755]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FF64FD49147BFD4B" box="[156,278,729,755]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
(fig. 9). This is a circumtropical genus currently of 125 described species, only 10 of which are Old World, all others being Neotropical. A total of 58 species were collected at Zurquí, making this the second-most diverse genus there after the subgenus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FBC5FCB41593FCDB" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subGenus" subGenus="Drosophila">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FBC5FCB41593FCDB" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Drosophila (Drosophila)</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD64FF64FCFF1130FBA6" blockId="15.[107,1214,729,1764]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
Species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FEF7FCFF14E9FC31" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[271,388,879,905]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FEF7FCFF14E9FC31" box="[271,388,879,905]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are morphologically and ecologically very diverse, as well as speciose. The revisions by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FF04FC0414C2FC16" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[252,431,916,942]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="103 - 268" refId="ref11404" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1987. Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 186 (2): 103 - 268." type="journal article" year="1987">Grimaldi (1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FE44FC04176FFC16" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[444,514,916,942]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="1 - 31" refId="ref11475" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1990 b. Revision of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae), part II. The first African species, two new Indo-Pacific groups, and the bilineata and samoaensis species groups. American Museum Novitates 2964: 1 - 31." type="journal article" year="1990">1990b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
) cover only part of the genus; large sections still need work. Species are small to large bodied, many with striking patterns: wing spots and other markings, notal and frontal stripes, and bands, spots or other patterns on the abdomen. There can be striking sexual dimorphism in head shape (e.g., the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FDF3FB941722FBA6" authorityName="Mather" authorityYear="1955" box="[523,591,1028,1054]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dispar">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FDF3FB941722FBA6" box="[523,591,1028,1054]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">dispar</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group), or coloration (e.g., the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FC57FB94116EFBA6" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1920" box="[943,1027,1028,1054]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="aldrichi">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FC57FB94116EFBA6" box="[943,1027,1028,1054]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">aldrichi</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD64FF64FBB91605FA9B" blockId="15.[107,1214,729,1764]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
Adult
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FF1DFBB91432FBFB" ID-CoL="922P5" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[229,351,1065,1091]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FF1DFBB91432FBFB" box="[229,351,1065,1091]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are usually found in large aggregations on forest mushrooms, where they graze, court and mate. Some species breed in the mushrooms (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FC93FBDF1149FBD1" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[875,1060,1103,1129]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="103 - 268" refId="ref11404" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1987. Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 186 (2): 103 - 268." type="journal article" year="1987">Grimaldi, 1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FBCBFBDF15CAFB36" author="Valer, F. B. & E. Bernardi & M. F. Mendes & M. L. Blauth & M. S. Gottschalk" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="705 - 718" refId="ref13440" refString="Valer, F. B., E. Bernardi, M. F. Mendes, M. L. Blauth, and M. S. Gottschalk. 2016. Diversity and associations between Drosophilidae (Diptera) species and Basidiomycetes in a Neotropical forest. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 88: 705 - 718." type="journal article" year="2016">Valer et al., 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FF4DFBE414F3FB36" author="Policha, T." box="[181,414,1140,1167]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="457 - 470" refId="ref12833" refString="Policha, T., et al. 2019. Do Dracula orchids exploit guilds of fungus visiting flies? New perspectives on a mushroom-mimic. Ecological Entomology 44 (4): 457 - 470." type="journal article" year="2019">Policha et al., 2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
); other species (even ones congregating at fungi) breed in flowers (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FF8CFB091446FB0B" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[116,299,1177,1203]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="103 - 268" refId="ref11404" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1987. Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 186 (2): 103 - 268." type="journal article" year="1987">Grimaldi, 1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FEC0FB09170EFB0B" author="Santa-Brigida, R." box="[312,611,1177,1204]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="20195920" refId="ref13097" refString="Santa-Brigida, R., et al. 2019. Mycophagous Drosophilidae (Diptera) guild and their hosts in the Brazilian Amazon. Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia 59: e 20195920." type="journal article" year="2019">Santa-Brígida et al., 2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FD97FB0916D5FB0C" author="dos Santos, R. D. C. O. & C. R. Vilela" box="[623,952,1177,1204]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="544 - 551" refId="ref11088" refString="dos Santos, R. D. C. O., and C. R. Vilela. 2005. Breeding sites of Neotropical Drosophilidae (Diptera): IV. Living and fallen flowers of Sessea brasiliensis and Cestrum spp. (Solanaceae). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 49: 544 - 551." type="journal article" year="2005">dos Santos and Vilela, 2005</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FC3CFB0A1110FB0B" author="Vaz, S. C. & C. R. Vilela & F. J. Krsticevic & A. B. Carvalho" box="[964,1149,1177,1204]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="607 - 620" refId="ref13600" refString="Vaz, S. C., C. R. Vilela, F. J. Krsticevic, and A. B. Carvalho. 2014. Developmental sites of Neotropical Drosophilidae (Diptera): V. Inflorescences of Calathea cylindrica and Calathea monophylla (Zingiberales: Marantaceae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 107 (3): 607 - 620." type="journal article" year="2014">Vaz et al., 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The attraction of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FEF0FB2F14EFFB61" ID-CoL="922P5" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[264,386,1215,1241]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FEF0FB2F14EFFB61" box="[264,386,1215,1241]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
to mushrooms is exploited by some pleurothalidiine orchids such as the genus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FF1FFB74142EFB46" ID-CoL="8VX4N" authorityName="C.A.Luer" authorityYear="1978" box="[231,323,1252,1278]" class="Liliopsida" family="Orchidaceae" genus="Dracula" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asparagales" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FF1FFB74142EFB46" box="[231,323,1252,1278]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Dracula</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
, which lure the flies to the orchid’s labellum, which looks and smells like a small mushroom (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FEBEFA99174AFA9B" author="Endara, L. & D. A. Grimaldi & B. A. Roy" box="[326,551,1289,1316]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="1 - 11" refId="ref11246" refString="Endara, L., D. A. Grimaldi, and B. A. Roy. 2010. Lord of the flies: pollination of Dracula orchids. Lankesteriana 10 (1): 1 - 11." type="journal article" year="2010">Endara et al., 2010</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FDCBFA99167EFA9B" author="Policha, T." box="[563,787,1289,1316]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="1058 - 1071" refId="ref12797" refString="Policha, T., et al. 2016. Disentangling visual and olfactory signals in mushroom-mimicking Dracula orchids using realistic three-dimensional printed flowers. New Phytologist 210 (3): 1058 - 1071." type="journal article" year="2016">Policha et al., 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FCE7FA991631FA9B" author="Policha, T." box="[799,860,1289,1315]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="457 - 470" refId="ref12833" refString="Policha, T., et al. 2019. Do Dracula orchids exploit guilds of fungus visiting flies? New perspectives on a mushroom-mimic. Ecological Entomology 44 (4): 457 - 470." type="journal article" year="2019">2019</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD64FF65FABF17D9F9F6" blockId="15.[107,1214,729,1764]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
Females of some
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FE8AFABF1720FAF1" box="[370,589,1327,1353]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FE8AFABF1482FAF1" box="[370,495,1327,1353]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
species
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
have impressively long, piercing oviscapts that are used for inserting eggs into flowers (fig. 9: spp. 12, 13, 23). While a long, piercing oviscapt is always associated with drosophilid species that breed in flowers (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FC5EFAE9112EFA2B" author="Brncic, D." box="[934,1091,1401,1427]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="333 - 382" refId="ref10919" refString="Brncic, D. 1983. Ecology of flower-breeding Drosophila. In M. Ashburner et al. (editors), The genetics and biology of Drosophila, vol. 3: 333 - 382. London: Academic Press." type="journal article" year="1983">Brncic, 1983</bibRefCitation>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FBA9FAE915DBFA01" author="Grimaldi, D." pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="1 - 139" refId="ref11440" refString="Grimaldi, D. 1990 a. A phylogenetic, revised classification of genera in the Drosophilidae (Diptera). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 197: 1 - 139." type="journal article" year="1990">Grimaldi 1990a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
), there are many anthophagous species with the typical, short oviscapt (such as the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FF94FA541405FA66" ID-CoL="37RBD" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1921" box="[108,360,1476,1502]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bromeliae">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FF94FA541405FA66" box="[108,360,1476,1502]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Drosophila bromeliae</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
group [
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD31BCD64FE3DFA5417EAFA66" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[453,647,1476,1502]" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" pagination="1 - 55" refId="ref11576" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 2016. Revision of the Drosophila bromeliae species group (Diptera: Drosophilidae): Central American, Caribbean, and Andean species. American Museum Novitates 3859: 1 - 55." type="journal article" year="2016">Grimaldi, 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
]). At Zurquí, at least 10 (17%) of the 58 species have a long, piercing oviscapt, but since some species are known only by males, and some with a typical oviscapt are probably also flower breeders, we conservatively estimate about 30% of the Zurquí
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FEABF9A414BDF9F6" ID-CoL="922P5" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[339,464,1588,1614]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FEABF9A414BDF9F6" box="[339,464,1588,1614]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
are anthophagous.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8BDD6D5ED31BCD7AFF66F9C9112EFDB9" blockId="15.[107,1214,729,1764]" lastBlockId="17.[108,1213,225,513]" lastPageId="17" lastPageNumber="18" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">
|
||
The species-abundance curve for Zurquí
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD31BCD64FD8CF9C91781F9CB" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[628,748,1625,1651]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="16" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD31BCD64FD8CF9C91781F9CB" box="[628,748,1625,1651]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="16">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is strongly concave, with just four of the 58 species (spp. 1, 4, 13, 19) comprising 50% of all individuals. Equally striking is the very long tail of rare species: 46 of the 58 species are known by just five or fewer specimens, suggestive of immense diversity. Indeed, there are probably hundreds of new species, especially in montane neotropical forests, but it will require long-term sampling to find them. Exceptional diversity of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD305CD7AFF95FE971588FE99" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[109,229,263,289]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="18" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD305CD7AFF95FE971588FE99" box="[109,229,263,289]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="18">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
is also suggested by a dramatic separation of species that occur in lowland rainforests and those in montane forests. At Zurquí, there were no specimens in the
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD305CD7AFC4EFEBC11E7FEFE" authorityName="Sturtevant" authorityYear="1920" box="[950,1162,300,326]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="18" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="aldrichi">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD305CD7AFC4EFEBC11E7FEFE" box="[950,1162,300,326]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="18">Zygothrica aldrichi</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD305CD7AFF95FEC115DEFED3" authorityName="Mather" authorityYear="1955" box="[109,179,337,363]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Drosophila" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="18" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dispar">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD305CD7AFF95FEC115DEFED3" box="[109,179,337,363]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="18">dispar</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
groups, which dominate in lowlands (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="EFF310AFD305CD7AFD90FEC11671FED3" author="Grimaldi, D. A." box="[616,796,337,363]" pageId="17" pageNumber="18" pagination="103 - 268" refId="ref11404" refString="Grimaldi, D. A. 1987. Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 186 (2): 103 - 268." type="journal article" year="1987">Grimaldi, 1987</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Malaise traps were very effective at sampling
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4C6216DDD305CD7AFF18FEE71434FE29" authorityName="Wiedemann" authorityYear="1830" box="[224,345,375,401]" class="Insecta" family="Drosophilidae" genus="Zygothrica" kingdom="Animalia" order="Diptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="18" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
|
||
<emphasis id="B916B14CD305CD7AFF18FEE71434FE29" box="[224,345,375,401]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="18">Zygothrica</emphasis>
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
at Zurquí: 84% of the individuals and all but nine of the species. Flight intercept traps sampled just 9% of the individuals and 19 of the species (five of the species uniquely: spp. 56, 59, 60, 61, 62). One specimen each in three species was obtained using emergence traps; these may have been breeding on mycelia or depleted fungal sporocarps.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |