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<document ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044" ID-GBIF-Dataset="df4b6a3c-ae64-4bcf-a990-77fc6599759c" ID-ISBN="978-84-96553-49-1" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5714044" checkinTime="1633643323770" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson &amp; Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2009" docId="038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Lontra canadensis" docType="treatment" docVersion="10" lastPageNumber="642" masterDocId="FFB6FFACCA50FFBFCA653C08FF86FF9C" masterDocTitle="Mustelidae" masterLastPageNumber="656" masterPageNumber="564" pageNumber="641" updateTime="1658240032535" updateUser="carolina">
<mods:mods xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Mustelidae</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
<mods:relatedItem type="host">
<mods:originInfo>
<mods:dateIssued>2009</mods:dateIssued>
<mods:dateOther type="pubDate">2009-01-31</mods:dateOther>
<mods:publisher>Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
<mods:place>
<mods:placeTerm>Barcelona</mods:placeTerm>
</mods:place>
</mods:originInfo>
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:part>
<mods:extent unit="page">
<mods:start>564</mods:start>
<mods:end>656</mods:end>
</mods:extent>
</mods:part>
</mods:relatedItem>
<mods:classification>book chapter</mods:classification>
<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="GBIF-Dataset">df4b6a3c-ae64-4bcf-a990-77fc6599759c</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ISBN">978-84-96553-49-1</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="Zenodo-Dep">5714044</mods:identifier>
</mods:mods>
<treatment ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714105" ID-GBIF-Taxon="190302385" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5714105" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921" lastPageId="23" lastPageNumber="642" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<heading pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<subSubSection box="[1412,1468,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="multiple">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1409,2436,822,937]" box="[1412,1468,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<figureCitation box="[1412,1468,822,860]" captionStart="Plate 35: Mustelidae" captionStartId="22.[135,165,3391,3412]" captionTargetBox="[12,2804,13,3640]" captionTargetPageId="21" captionText="27. Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis), 28. North American River Otter (Lontra canadensis), 29. Marine Otter (Lontra felina), 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontra longicaudis), 31. Southern River Otter (Lontra provocax), 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris), 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis), 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra), 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutra sumatrana), 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis), 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus), 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6363026" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6363026/files/figure.png" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">28.</figureCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection box="[1485,2073,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1409,2436,822,937]" box="[1485,2073,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<vernacularName box="[1485,2073,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
North American
<collectingRegion box="[1841,1948,822,860]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otter
</vernacularName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection box="[2088,2435,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1409,2436,822,937]" box="[2088,2435,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schreber" baseAuthorityYear="1777" box="[2088,2435,822,860]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="canadensis">
<emphasis box="[2088,2435,822,860]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Lontra canadensis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1409,2436,822,937]" box="[1410,2365,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1410,1488,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[1497,1671,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
Loutre du
<collectingCountry box="[1600,1671,877,898]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis box="[1693,1784,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[1794,2102,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Nordamerikanischer Fischotter</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis box="[2122,2212,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[2223,2365,877,898]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Nutria neértica</vernacularName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1409,2436,822,937]" box="[1410,1775,916,937]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1410,1656,916,937]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName box="[1666,1775,916,937]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<collectingRegion box="[1666,1715,916,937]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otter
</vernacularName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</heading>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="reference_group">
<paragraph blockId="22.[2025,2610,987,1409]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[2025,2180,987,1016]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName authority="Schreber, 1776" authorityName="Schreber" authorityYear="1776" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lutra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="canadensis">Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776</taxonomicName>
,
<materialsCitation ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3707806333" box="[2110,2336,1027,1056]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
Eastern
<collectingCountry box="[2225,2332,1027,1056]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
.
</materialsCitation>
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[2025,2610,987,1409]" box="[2026,2485,1066,1095]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Seven subspecies are recognized.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="distribution">
<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714211" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5714211" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5714211/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" targetBox="[1409,1993,995,1404]" targetPageId="22">
<paragraph blockId="22.[2025,2610,987,1409]" box="[2025,2424,1105,1134]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[2025,2424,1105,1134]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[2025,2610,987,1409]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Schreber, 1776" authorityName="Schreber" authorityYear="1776" box="[2026,2443,1141,1174]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="canadensis">L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776</taxonomicName>
— E
<collectingCountry box="[2505,2610,1141,1174]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
(Maritime Provinces,
<collectingRegion box="[2327,2437,1184,1213]" country="Canada" name="Ontario" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Ontario</collectingRegion>
&amp;
<collectingRegion box="[2479,2593,1184,1213]" country="Canada" name="Quebec" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Quebec</collectingRegion>
), NE
<collectingCountry box="[2082,2145,1223,1252]" name="United States of America" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">USA</collectingCountry>
(
<collectingRegion box="[2168,2256,1223,1252]" country="United States of America" name="Maine" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Maine</collectingRegion>
through
<collectingRegion box="[2397,2533,1223,1252]" country="United States of America" name="New York" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">New York</collectingRegion>
) and Great Lakes of
<collectingCountry box="[2251,2314,1262,1291]" name="United States of America" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">USA</collectingCountry>
(
<collectingRegion box="[2339,2471,1262,1291]" country="United States of America" name="Michigan" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Michigan</collectingRegion>
and
<collectingRegion country="United States of America" name="Wisconsin" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Wisconsin</collectingRegion>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[2025,2610,987,1409]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Goldman, 1935" authorityName="Goldman" authorityYear="1935" box="[2026,2475,1345,1370]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="kodiacensis">L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935</taxonomicName>
—
<collectingRegion box="[2519,2609,1345,1370]" country="United States of America" name="Alaska" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Alaska</collectingRegion>
(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" box="[1410,1972,1423,1448]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Cuvier, 1823" authorityName="Cuvier" authorityYear="1823" box="[1410,1762,1423,1448]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="lataxina">L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823</taxonomicName>
— E &amp; SE
<collectingCountry box="[1904,1968,1423,1448]" name="United States of America" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">USA</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" box="[1410,2570,1458,1487]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Goldman, 1935" authorityName="Goldman" authorityYear="1935" box="[1410,1757,1458,1487]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="mira">L. c. mira Goldman, 1935</taxonomicName>
— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW
<collectingCountry box="[2253,2358,1458,1487]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
(Vancouver I).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" box="[1410,2124,1502,1527]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Rhoads, 1898" authorityName="Rhoads" authorityYear="1898" box="[1410,1768,1502,1527]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="pacifica">L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898</taxonomicName>
— W
<collectingCountry box="[1841,1903,1502,1527]" name="United States of America" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">USA</collectingCountry>
and W
<collectingCountry box="[2012,2119,1502,1527]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" box="[1410,2287,1537,1566]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Elliot, 1905" authorityName="Elliot" authorityYear="1905" box="[1410,1794,1537,1566]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="periclyzomae">L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905</taxonomicName>
— W
<collectingCountry box="[1868,1973,1537,1566]" name="Canada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Canada</collectingCountry>
(Queen Charlotte Is).
</paragraph>
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<taxonomicName authority="Rhoads, 1898" authorityName="Rhoads" authorityYear="1898" box="[1410,1774,1576,1605]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="canadensis" subSpecies="sonora">L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898</taxonomicName>
— SW
<collectingCountry box="[1881,1943,1576,1605]" name="United States of America" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">USA</collectingCountry>
(
<collectingRegion box="[1970,2082,1576,1605]" country="United States of America" name="Arizona" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Arizona</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingRegion box="[2104,2245,1576,1605]" country="United States of America" name="California" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">California</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingRegion box="[2268,2401,1576,1605]" country="United States of America" name="Colorado" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Colorado</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingRegion box="[2423,2528,1576,1605]" country="United States of America" name="Nevada" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Nevada</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingRegion country="United States of America" name="New Mexico" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">New Mexico</collectingRegion>
&amp;
<collectingRegion box="[1554,1629,1615,1644]" country="United States of America" name="Utah" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Utah</collectingRegion>
).
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="description">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1409,1659,1655,1684]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body
<quantity box="[1840,1973,1655,1684]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="7.15" metricValueMax="7.3" metricValueMin="7.0" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="cm" value="71.5" valueMax="73.0" valueMin="70.0">70-73 cm</quantity>
(males), 58:
<quantity box="[2159,2304,1655,1684]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.715" metricValueMax="7.13" metricValueMin="0.3" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="cm" value="37.15" valueMax="71.3" valueMin="3.0">3-71.3 cm</quantity>
(females), tail
<quantity metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.45" metricValueMax="4.7" metricValueMin="4.2" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="cm" value="44.5" valueMax="47.0" valueMin="42.0">42-47 cm</quantity>
(males),
<quantity box="[1590,1751,1694,1723]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.585" metricValueMax="4.0" metricValueMin="3.17" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="cm" value="35.85" valueMax="40.0" valueMin="31.7">31.7-40 cm</quantity>
(females); weight
<quantity box="[2022,2169,1694,1723]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="8.55" metricValueMax="9.4" metricValueMin="7.7" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="kg" value="8.55" valueMax="9.4" valueMin="7.7">7.7-9.4 kg</quantity>
(males),
<quantity box="[2309,2456,1694,1723]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="7.85" metricValueMax="8.4" metricValueMin="7.3" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="kg" value="7.85" valueMax="8.4" valueMin="7.3">7.3-8.4 kg</quantity>
(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American
<collectingRegion box="[2538,2609,1730,1763]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1408,1518,2009,2038]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Habitat.</emphasis>
North American
<collectingRegion box="[1779,1850,2009,2038]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1407,1670,2241,2274]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American
<collectingRegion box="[2537,2609,2319,2352]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American
<collectingRegion box="[1740,1811,2481,2510]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American
<collectingRegion box="[2194,2265,2595,2628]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of
<quantity box="[2129,2222,2681,2706]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.1" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="km" value="11.0">11 km</quantity>
/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="activity">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1405,1641,2756,2785]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="23" lastPageNumber="642" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph blockId="22.[1405,2610,1423,3295]" lastBlockId="23.[209,1418,280,1728]" lastPageId="23" lastPageNumber="642" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
<emphasis box="[1406,2119,2909,2942]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
North American
<collectingRegion box="[2381,2453,2909,2942]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than
<quantity box="[2220,2306,2952,2981]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="km" value="40.0">40 km</quantity>
in a single day. Daily movements average
<quantity box="[1693,1793,2987,3020]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.5" metricValueMax="5.0" metricValueMin="4.0" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="km" value="4.5" valueMax="5.0" valueMin="4.0">4-5 km</quantity>
for males and
<quantity box="[2007,2108,2987,3020]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.5" metricValueMax="3.0" metricValueMin="2.0" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" unit="km" value="2.5" valueMax="3.0" valueMin="2.0">2-3 km</quantity>
for females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American
<collectingRegion box="[1407,1478,3070,3099]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American
<collectingRegion box="[1739,1810,3266,3295]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach
<quantity box="[1103,1202,437,466]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.75" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" unit="km" value="275.0">275 km</quantity>
” for males and
<quantity box="[214,312,481,506]" metricMagnitude="5" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.35" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" unit="km" value="135.0">135 km</quantity>
? for females. In south-eastern
<collectingRegion box="[751,899,481,506]" country="United States of America" name="Minnesota" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Minnesota</collectingRegion>
, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per
<quantity box="[801,869,669,702]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="4.0" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" unit="km" value="4.0">4 km</quantity>
of water in
<collectingRegion box="[1045,1126,669,702]" country="United States of America" name="Idaho" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Idaho</collectingRegion>
to one per
<quantity box="[1300,1410,669,702]" metricMagnitude="4" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.3" metricValueMax="2.5" metricValueMin="0.1" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" unit="km" value="13.0" valueMax="25.0" valueMin="1.0">1-25 km</quantity>
of coastal water in
<collectingRegion box="[470,563,713,742]" country="United States of America" name="Alaska" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Alaska</collectingRegion>
.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<caption ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6363026" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6363026" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6363026/files/figure.png" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" startId="22.[135,165,3391,3412]" targetBox="[12,2804,13,3640]" targetPageId="21">
<paragraph blockId="22.[134,2572,3390,3458]" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">
On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gray" authorityYear="1843" box="[560,629,3391,3412]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lontra</taxonomicName>
felina); 30. Neotropical Otter (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gray" authorityYear="1843" box="[962,1031,3391,3412]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lontra</taxonomicName>
longicaudis); 31. Southern
<collectingRegion box="[1332,1385,3391,3412]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="22" pageNumber="641">River</collectingRegion>
Otter (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gray" authorityYear="1843" box="[1467,1536,3391,3412]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lontra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lontra</taxonomicName>
provocax); 32. Sea Otter (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" box="[1825,1975,3391,3412]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Enhydra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lutris">Enhydra lutris</taxonomicName>
); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Lichtenstein" baseAuthorityYear="1835" box="[2290,2520,3391,3412]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Hydrictis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="maculicollis">Hydrictis maculicollis</taxonomicName>
); 34. Eurasian Otter (
<taxonomicName authority="lutra" box="[308,419,3430,3451]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lutra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="lutra">Lutra lutra</taxonomicName>
); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Brisson" authorityYear="1762" box="[691,746,3430,3451]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lutra" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lutra</taxonomicName>
sumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schinz" baseAuthorityYear="1821" box="[1194,1365,3430,3451]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Aonyx" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="capensis">Aonyx capensis</taxonomicName>
); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Illiger" baseAuthorityYear="1815" box="[1720,1889,3430,3451]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Aonyx" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="cinereus">Aonyx cinereus</taxonomicName>
); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gray" authorityYear="1865" box="[2199,2301,3430,3451]" class="Mammalia" family="Mustelidae" genus="Lutrogale" kingdom="Animalia" order="Carnivora" pageId="22" pageNumber="641" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Lutrogale</taxonomicName>
perspicillata).
</paragraph>
</caption>
<subSubSection pageId="23" pageNumber="642" type="breeding">
<paragraph blockId="23.[209,1418,280,1728]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">
<emphasis box="[210,345,752,781]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Breeding.</emphasis>
North American
<collectingRegion box="[602,675,752,781]" country="Nigeria" name="Rivers" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">River</collectingRegion>
Otters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern
<collectingRegion box="[462,612,910,939]" country="United States of America" name="Minnesota" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Minnesota</collectingRegion>
,
<specimenCount box="[635,804,910,939]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" type="female">two females</specimenCount>
used man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of
<quantity box="[494,583,1028,1057]" metricMagnitude="2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.16" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" unit="m" value="316.0">316 m</quantity>
from the nearest body of water. Seven of
<specimenCount box="[1219,1411,1028,1057]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642" type="female">eight females</specimenCount>
placed dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="23" pageNumber="642" type="conservation">
<paragraph blockId="23.[209,1418,280,1728]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">
<emphasis box="[211,558,1264,1293]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
<collectionCode box="[570,660,1264,1293]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">CITES</collectionCode>
Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in
<collectingCountry box="[1230,1335,1342,1371]" name="Mexico" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Mexico</collectingCountry>
. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="23" pageNumber="642" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph blockId="23.[209,1418,280,1728]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">
<emphasis box="[213,363,1622,1647]" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Gorman, Erb, McMillan &amp; Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin &amp; Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere &amp; Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist &amp; Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass &amp; Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989),
<collectingRegion box="[920,957,1700,1725]" country="Turkey" name="Van" pageId="23" pageNumber="642">Van</collectingRegion>
Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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