558 lines
80 KiB
XML
558 lines
80 KiB
XML
<document id="F553956DF2CF67355E08BFFF2EC20F9B" ID-CLB-Dataset="35024" ID-DOI="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.608.9427" ID-GBIF-Dataset="f37895dc-7316-48e6-ac3e-901aa5f79eeb" ID-PMC="PMC4982377" ID-Pensoft-Pub="1313-2970-608-1" ID-PubMed="27559303" ID-ZooBank="F865473C03374FD2915A0E3DD2299E66" ModsDocAuthor="" ModsDocDate="2016" ModsDocID="1313-2970-608-1" ModsDocOrigin="ZooKeys 608" ModsDocTitle="Generic revision of the ant subfamily Dorylinae (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)" checkinTime="1470408253360" checkinUser="pensoft" docAuthor="Borowiec, Marek L." docDate="2016" docId="C60680698B2E844D6B82BAABE89E8F1E" docLanguage="en" docName="ZooKeys 608: 1-280" docOrigin="ZooKeys 608" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.608.9427" docTitle="Eciton Latreille 1804" docType="treatment" docVersion="9" lastPageNumber="117" masterDocId="D563FF93FFEAD163FF9A3E6FFFDDF937" masterDocTitle="Generic revision of the ant subfamily Dorylinae (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)" masterLastPageNumber="280" masterPageNumber="1" pageNumber="110" updateTime="1701385037927" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:titleInfo id="7C97C417D869ABDF8B42895B179C9175">
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<mods:title id="508649156C0AE9A967E95B59DBFBDD47">Generic revision of the ant subfamily Dorylinae (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)</mods:title>
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<mods:name id="DAD57CBD6EB83E865DA4D9F9B5F1483C" type="personal">
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<mods:namePart id="35D15916C9E868EE3BADF6529300823A">Borowiec, Marek L.</mods:namePart>
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<mods:title id="4A8CD862D2AFE3F11AEE7A2345756032">ZooKeys</mods:title>
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<mods:date id="63A3EBB0BE47F011181492429A6D2132">2016</mods:date>
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<mods:start id="D8C6F58C5932595750325DC929ED9969">1</mods:start>
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<mods:url id="91D23AE4C8847C90F1867CE6A9FA9B47">http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.608.9427</mods:url>
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<mods:classification id="7D3F2E03A9A9A8A75400F434608814B2">journal article</mods:classification>
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<mods:identifier id="60DAE06E28ED59AEBA6885B2A002C634" type="DOI">http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.608.9427</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier id="2F13A11D3E7248FEC2F5F2EA13B00D5E" type="Pensoft-Pub">1313-2970-608-1</mods:identifier>
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</mods:mods>
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<treatment id="C60680698B2E844D6B82BAABE89E8F1E" ID-GBIF-Taxon="127875732" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:C60680698B2E844D6B82BAABE89E8F1E" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/C60680698B2E844D6B82BAABE89E8F1E" lastPageId="116" lastPageNumber="117" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<subSubSection id="33701D9CE00C0CCDED6BD30A9A3CF770" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" type="multiple">
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<paragraph id="642EBCA13E759EBBD07D1D4B159B65CF" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">Taxon classification Animalia Hymenoptera Formicidae</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="53DAD6F94958C14DFF09C2B9A38128E2" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" type="nomenclature">
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<paragraph id="8AE2B55338553F71940116DDF43CCD94" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<taxonomicName id="7F844F6A43F5F762726B2BAE7F8BF48A" ID-CoL="49RK" authority="Latreille, 1804" authorityName="Latreille" authorityYear="1804" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="treatment-meta" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton Latreille, 1804</taxonomicName>
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="EBB07EC6EE30B7EC8B56178F44B795AF" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" type="reference_group">
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<paragraph id="D5A730F8C5674C502080F4BEEE7E706F" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<taxonomicName id="9608003AD106AD61DF65C9397F4AE47C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Camptognatha" higherTaxonomySource="treatment-meta" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Camptognatha" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">= Camptognatha</taxonomicName>
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Grey, 1832
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="BFA96970FEAD68A1ED3C094B7FF585F5" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<taxonomicName id="D19878B57191C17C20BE9FF995922F7D" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Holopone" higherTaxonomySource="treatment-meta" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Holopone" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">= Holopone</taxonomicName>
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Santschi, 1925
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="1B35D12B54F46A75A1D08DFE2B22183D" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<taxonomicName id="287F54A20B973D1C1CF22389E1438261" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Mayromyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="treatment-meta" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Mayromyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">= Mayromyrmex</taxonomicName>
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Ashmead, 1905
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="743DA63391B4EAEA0BDEB5449F616F15" lastPageId="110" lastPageNumber="111" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" type="type-species">
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<paragraph id="EDBDC09186306DE350049CB1C91523EF" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">Type-species.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="369D5093AEDA13CF3176EEEBA9923E9A" pageId="109" pageNumber="110">
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<taxonomicName id="20C91F98F4E1E8B7048CC7CE604D1721" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Formica" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Formica hamata" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="109" pageNumber="110" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamata">Formica hamata</taxonomicName>
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, by subsequent designation of Shuckard, in Swainson and Shuckard, 1840.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="CD6BBC9C62BC805821CCEB81CFBC083B" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">
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<taxonomicName id="3C9DBCC22BED188CF5E3E8345EB6BF95" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
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<pageBreakToken id="8DFC7BC2961CA672B0726ACCC8CB6E69" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" start="start">Eciton</pageBreakToken>
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</taxonomicName>
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comprises the most conspicuous army ants in the New World. The huge colony size combined with epigaeic nesting and foraging habits makes these ants major invertebrate predators and key species of the tropical ecosystems.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="C789A57CAA25CDB831387706F0C0D10B" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" type="diagnosis">
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<paragraph id="14A3192FD6229B7E6A14E6AE792E401F" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">Diagnosis.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="FD9EFCC39247174FE20ADF6366E1A890" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">
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Worker.
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<taxonomicName id="1BF4EFC0208E0193A73A090669C4DBA1" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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is recognized by a combination of 12-segmented antennae, propodeal spiracle high on the propodeum, propodeal declivity armed with cuticular tubercles or lamellae, binodal waist, pretarsal claws armed with a tooth and presence of a prominent metatibial gland visible as an elongate patch of whitish or yellowish cuticle on the flexor (inner) surface of tibia. Among New World army ants,
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<taxonomicName id="38FED063CF45EE7E5970E35AD3BE4FAF" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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is similar to its closest relative
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<taxonomicName id="719C633098C0C20308C1B8C14D19412B" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Nomamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Nomamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Nomamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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, with which it shares propodeal armament, but workers of all sizes are easily separated by a conspicuous white stripe on inner hind tibiae that is absent in
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<taxonomicName id="9C9BE959904DD4F3561A4C10CF24AA73" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Nomamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Nomamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Nomamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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.
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<taxonomicName id="7ADCE01E6F55193D56AA2F0D25FDABAE" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Labidus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Labidus" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Labidus</taxonomicName>
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species can be distinguished from
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<taxonomicName id="097304BFA79B2AFF484892A54915EC1E" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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by their smooth, unarmed propodeum.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="8CCC396BBE8052981ECF18171CB60C73" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">
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Male. The males of
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<taxonomicName id="60AD7AF8C0B5393D023339A2CA718087" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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possess wing venation characteristic of all the New World army ants (also see under
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<taxonomicName id="C0102781A2142AF72F3F5BD7E0CAD25B" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Cheliomyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Cheliomyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Cheliomyrmex</taxonomicName>
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male diagnosis). A combination of absence of very long setae approaching femur length on abdomen, apices of penisvalvae without setae, gradually tapering volsellae, and deeply concave dorsal surface of the petiole will distinguish
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<taxonomicName id="51418D69446680D224A3D1DCED5E302F" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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males from all other army ant genera in the New World. The dense tufts of long setae on abdomen are characteristic of
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<taxonomicName id="E3F4DE8EE94A58CF14A756F9FC31106B" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Nomamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Nomamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Nomamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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, although
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<taxonomicName id="7AB1C061700274E46934388B6842BFB5" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton setigaster" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="setigaster">Eciton setigaster</taxonomicName>
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also has long setae abdominal setae; those are not quite as long and abundant as in
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<taxonomicName id="9C43DBFEF20C9FA2A7314B3A084C4DC3" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Nomamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Nomamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Nomamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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, however, not approaching fore femur length. The penisvalvae without setae are also found in
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<taxonomicName id="B4ED39F7BF6570CDBEE4A5DD98236E0C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Neivamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Neivamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Neivamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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but in that genus the volsellae taper to a sharp point and often turn downwards towards the apex or are forked, not simply gradually narrowing to a blunt apex as in
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<taxonomicName id="9FD146DE395E7671F35251DF57B007A8" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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. In addition,
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<taxonomicName id="D55EF4E82D753964D5D1CE4DAF970D8F" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
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males have a very conspicuously excavated dorsal surface of the petiole, which is usually more flattened in
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<taxonomicName id="43B2A3AFBC57CA73D2926D8113638A5C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Neivamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Neivamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Neivamyrmex</taxonomicName>
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.
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</paragraph>
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</subSubSection>
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<subSubSection id="4CB3B027D8271F731105314E460ACD9E" lastPageId="112" lastPageNumber="113" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" type="description">
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<paragraph id="676DFEF50A5334D463C29CD6C410718E" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">Description.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="7D38E58B0BBD61502D37A8360771AA29" lastPageId="111" lastPageNumber="112" pageId="110" pageNumber="111">
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Worker.Head: Antennae with 12 segments. Apical antennal segment not enlarged, not broader and longer than two preceding segments combined. Clypeus with cuticular apron. Lateroclypeal teeth absent.
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<taxonomicName id="016B1B9DBAE7B1F911C22D4D2C0040EE" class="Insecta" genus="Parafrontal" lsidName="Parafrontal ridges" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="ridges">Parafrontal ridges</taxonomicName>
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reduced. Torulo-posttorular complex vertical. Antennal scrobes absent. Labrum with median notch or concavity. Proximal face of stipes projecting beyond inner margin of sclerite, concealing prementum when mouthparts fully closed. Maxillary palps 2-segmented. Labial palps 3-segmented. Mandibles polymorphic, from triangular with teeth through falcate with teeth on masticatory margin, to falcate without teeth on elongated masticatory margin. Eyes present, appearing as single large and convex ommatidium, in reality composed from fused ommatidia. Ocelli absent. Head capsule with differentiated vertical posterior surface above occipital foramen. Ventrolateral margins of head without lamella or ridge extending towards mandibles and beyond carina surrounding occipital foramen. Posterior head corners dorsolaterally immarginate. Carina surrounding occipital foramen ventrally absent. Mesosoma: Pronotal flange not separated from collar by distinct ridge. Promesonotal connection with Pronotomesopleural suture completely fused.
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<taxonomicName id="B8A2EC1F8BA6BA44FD76DEEE16C0F7B9" class="Insecta" genus="Pronotomesopleural" lsidName="Pronotomesopleural suture" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="suture">Pronotomesopleural suture</taxonomicName>
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completely fused.
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<taxonomicName id="4BD210A9D991C96BAC380033D001493A" class="Insecta" genus="Mesometapleural" lsidName="Mesometapleural groove" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="groove">Mesometapleural groove</taxonomicName>
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not impressed. Transverse
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<taxonomicName id="A3F6709D23813BEF32031D3018D24AC8" class="Insecta" lsidName="groove" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="groove">groove</taxonomicName>
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dividing mesopleuron absent. Pleural endophragmal pit concavity present. Mesosoma dorsolaterally immarginate. Metanotal depression or
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<taxonomicName id="F2277A8F9F603CEBAADC17FE065D2A2D" class="Insecta" lsidName="groove" pageId="110" pageNumber="111" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="groove">groove</taxonomicName>
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on mesosoma present. Pro
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<pageBreakToken id="CCFEED7BF6542FF7DD6574DD7C86273D" pageId="111" pageNumber="112" start="start">podeal</pageBreakToken>
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spiracle situated high on sclerite. Propodeal declivity with distinct dorsal edge or margin and in form of narrow strip. Metapleural gland with bulla visible through cuticle. Propodeal lobes present, short. Metasoma: Petiole anterodorsally immarginate or marginate, dorsolaterally immarginate, and laterally above spiracle immarginate. Helcium in relation to tergosternal Pronotomesopleural suture placed at posttergite and axial. Prora narrowed into anteriorly directed spine. Spiracle openings of abdominal segments
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<normalizedToken id="CFC61B18EE34E20084A5424363D3AB29" originalValue="IV–VI">IV-VI</normalizedToken>
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slit-shaped or oval in small workers. Abdominal segment III anterodorsally immarginate and dorsolaterally immarginate. Abdominal segment III about half size of succeeding segment IV, which is strongly constricted at presegmental portion (binodal waist). Girdling constriction of segment IV present, i.e. pre- and postsclerites distinct. Cinctus of abdominal segment IV a gradual concavity, not gutter-like. Abdominal segment IV conspicuously largest segment. Abdominal tergite IV not folding over sternite, and anterior portions of sternite and tergite equally well visible in lateral view. Girdling constriction between pre- and posttergites of abdominal segments V and VI absent. Girdling constriction between pre- and poststernites of abdominal segments V and VI absent. Pygidium small, reduced to narrow strip, without impressed medial field and simple, not armed with cuticular spines or modified setae. Hypopygium unarmed. Legs: Mid tibia with single pectinate spur. Hind tibia with single pectinate spur. Hind basitarsus not widening distally, circular in cross-section. Posterior flange of hind coxa not produced as raised lamella. Metatibial gland present as patch of whitish cuticle occupying at least half of tibia length. Metabasitarsal gland absent. Hind pretarsal claws each armed with a tooth. Polymorphism: Highly polymorphic.
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="0B991FACB4661E2F743A97E09FE5297A" lastPageId="112" lastPageNumber="113" pageId="111" pageNumber="112">
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Male.Head: Antennae with 13 segments. Clypeus without cuticular apron.
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<taxonomicName id="918F60EDB624C954D46CBAC4C0E3EA85" class="Insecta" genus="Parafrontal" lsidName="Parafrontal ridges" pageId="111" pageNumber="112" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="ridges">Parafrontal ridges</taxonomicName>
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absent. Torulo-posttorular complex vertical. Maxillary palps 2-segmented. Labial palps 2-segmented. Mandibles falcate. Ventrolateral margins of head without lamella or ridge extending towards mandibles and beyond carina surrounding occipital foramen. Carina surrounding occipital foramen ventrally absent. Mesosoma: Pronotal flange not separated from collar by distinct ridge.
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<taxonomicName id="3FCE96A56B32F19233A88EF1C7BAFB0B" class="Insecta" genus="Notauli" lsidName="Notauli" pageId="111" pageNumber="112" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Notauli</taxonomicName>
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absent. Transverse
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<taxonomicName id="678F3EA8F3B47B32CC3FAFDC173696A8" class="Insecta" lsidName="groove" pageId="111" pageNumber="112" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="groove">groove</taxonomicName>
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dividing mesopleuron absent. Propodeal declivity reduced, without distinct dorsal edge or margin. Metapleural gland opening absent. Propodeal lobes present. Metasoma: Petiole anterodorsally immarginate, dorsolaterally immarginate, and laterally above spiracle immarginate. Helcium in relation to tergosternal Pronotomesopleural suture placed at Pronotomesopleural suture and axial. Prora forming a simple, wide U-shaped margin not delimited by ridge. Spiracle openings of abdominal segments
|
||
<normalizedToken id="B44CC083306404DDF8725C4A0EB39034" originalValue="IV–VI">IV-VI</normalizedToken>
|
||
slit-shaped. Abdominal segment III more than half size of succeeding segment IV; latter weakly constricted at presegmental portion (uninodal waist). Girdling constriction of segment IV absent, i.e. pre- and postsclerites indistinct. Cinctus of abdominal segment IV absent, not impressed. Girdling constriction between pre- and postsclerites of abdominal segments V and VI absent. Abdominal segment IV not conspicuously largest segment. Abdominal sternite VII simple. Abdominal sternite IX distally armed with two spines, with lateral apodemes longer than much reduced medial apodeme, directed anteriorly (towards head). Genitalia: Cupula very long, nearing or surpassing length of rest of genital capsule and of approximately equal length on both dorsal and ventral surfaces. Basimere
|
||
<pageBreakToken id="44060A8C42047199E9A9C1D22F2F7674" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" start="start">narrowly</pageBreakToken>
|
||
fused to telomere, with Pronotomesopleural suture modified into membrane at junction, and ventrally with left and right arms abutting. Telomere expanded at apex.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="45EA5CAE48C4372C780405799F4F9F0D" class="Insecta" family="Mytilidae" genus="Volsella" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Volsella" order="Mytilida" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Volsella</taxonomicName>
|
||
laterally flattened, narrow and tapered towards tip. Penisvalva hook-like, strongly curved ventrally. Legs: Mid tibia with single pectinate spur. Hind tibia with single pectinate spur. Posterior flange of hind coxa not produced as raised lamella. Metatibial gland absent. Metabasitarsal glands absent. Hind pretarsal claws each armed with a tooth. Wings: Tegula present, broad, demiovate in shape. Vein C in fore wing present. Pterostigma narrow. Abscissa R·f3 present, running toward distal wing margin and enclosing cell with Rs·f5. Abscissae Rs·f2-3 present, connecting with Rs+M&M·f2. Cross-vein 2r-rs present, differentiated from Rs·f4 by presence of Rs·f2-3. Abscissae Rs·f4-5 differentiated into Rs·f4 and Rs·f5 by 2rs-m. Abscissa M·f2 in fore wing present, separated from Rs+M by Rs·f2. Abscissa M·f4 in fore wing present, reaching wing margin. Cross-vein 1m-cu in fore wing present. Cross-vein cu-a in fore wing present, arising from Cu and distal to, at or near M·f1. Vein Cu in fore wing present, with both branches Cu1 and Cu2. Vein A in fore wing with abscissae A·f1 and A·f2 present. Vein C in hind wing absent. Vein R in hind wing present, reaching distal wing margin. Vein Sc+R in hind wing present. Abscissa Rs·f1 in hind wing present, shorter than 1rs-m. Abscissa Rs·f2 in hind wing present, reaching wing margin. Cross-vein 1rs-m in hind wing fused with M·f1. Vein M+Cu in hind wing present. Abscissa M·f1 in hind wing present. Abscissa M·f2 in hind wing present. Cross-vein cu-a in hind wing present. Vein Cu in hind wing present. Vein A in hind wing with abscissae A·f1 and A·f2 present.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="98658CF09A6B530ED7610130F4C4825D" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
Gyne. Dichthadiiform, with eyes but no ocelli (see e.g.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="47BBD070710D3456445D06311AD3DE74" author="Wheeler, WM" journalOrPublisher="Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences" pageId="218" pageNumber="219" pagination="291 - 328" title="Observations on army ants in British Guiana." url="10.2307/20025856" volume="56" year="1921">Wheeler 1921</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="E8671CCDCA28E1A364E357C0CD33BDB2" author="Wheeler, WM" journalOrPublisher="Biological Bulletin (Woods Hole)" pageId="218" pageNumber="219" pagination="139 - 149" title="The finding of the queen of the army ant Ecitonhamatum Fabricius." url="10.2307/1536459" volume="49" year="1925 b">1925b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="F62D8D6AD0F27D5B87A8B4AF20014490" author="Borgmeier, T" journalOrPublisher="Studia Entomologica (n. s.)" pageId="192" pageNumber="193" pagination="197 - 208" title="Nachtraege zu meiner Monographie der neotropischen Wanderameisen (Hym. Formicidae)." volume="1" year="1958">Borgmeier 1958</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). See
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="86B0E73DA45ACAC7DFDC2D4AF7593369" author="Hoelldobler, B" journalOrPublisher="PLoS ONE" pageId="202" pageNumber="203" title="Queen specific exocrine glands in legionary ants and their possible function in sexual selection." url="10.1371/journal.pone.0151604" volume="11" year="2016">
|
||
<normalizedToken id="452677E6EE8C66F6177F30CC75FFA354" originalValue="Hölldobler">Hoelldobler</normalizedToken>
|
||
(2016)
|
||
</bibRefCitation>
|
||
for a description of queen exocrine glands in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A4005420317E26A85C8944C719B84556" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="E10CD951C8D98C0590C68A90ED2AC96C" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
Larva. Larvae of several
|
||
<taxonomicName id="EA8D94AED20AA85FDB93DB02B38668CC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
species have been described by
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="8478B174B07926F3DB363C3DF753AD7B" author="Wheeler, GC" journalOrPublisher="Annals of the Entomological Society of America" pageId="217" pageNumber="218" pagination="319 - 332" title="The larvae of the army ants." url="10.1093/aesa/36.2.319" volume="36" year="1943">Wheeler (1943)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
and
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="FAE8AD194D5A9CB074BE62A398FD1BBA" author="Wheeler, GC" journalOrPublisher="Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington" pageId="217" pageNumber="218" pagination="129 - 137" title="The ant larvae of the subfamily Dorylinae: supplement." volume="66" year="1964 b">Wheeler and Wheeler (1964b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="C09B6336EAC3057A15E08DF0F865A839" author="Wheeler, GC" journalOrPublisher="Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society" pageId="217" pageNumber="218" pagination="263 - 275" title="The larvae of the army ants: a revision." volume="57" year="1984">1984</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Cocoons are present.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="7412EB7D41CE0CDFC705183FA3BAA44D" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" type="distribution">
|
||
<paragraph id="2456BD701204B9A53A6F5334B1D25097" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">Distribution.</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="2B6EF1D7923627063882CC97CFF36989" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">From northern Mexico to northern Argentina.</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="D4C00CBB07784AB6F06F27EA96451526" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" type="taxonomy and phylogeny">
|
||
<paragraph id="904B78E1534580A70E48D61113DF0B0E" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">Taxonomy and phylogeny.</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="B3CC1DCC89BCD596B77333EDC3820FC9" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="0AC6B942E1104956CE86D90959F01C58" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
is the sister lineage to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="1E6BF40049D2A84655692C7DC1D6E28D" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Nomamyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Nomamyrmex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Nomamyrmex</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="85D41BF541A94ADC03007FC38A7C6355" author="Brady, SG" journalOrPublisher="BMC Evolutionary Biology" pageId="192" pageNumber="193" title="The rise of army ants and their relatives: diversification of specialized predatory doryline ants." url="10.1186/1471-2148-14-93" volume="14" year="2014">Brady et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
, Borowiec, in prep.). An effort to infer the internal phylogeny is currently under way (Daniel Kronauer, Max Winston pers. comm.).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="ECD9C99C5A97E85A2620F508E5D47792" lastPageId="115" lastPageNumber="116" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" type="biology_ecology">
|
||
<paragraph id="C74C203F1F5CA4428219413A251244A7" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">Biology.</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8EA8CD6B15CCF2F6104D5421C0AF8F03" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="C27357B1621E5DF8A82845FAF106FD9F" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
is the best studied lineage of the dorylines, owing to the lifetime efforts by pioneers of army ant biology, including Thomas Schneirla, Thomas Borgmeier and Carl Rettenmeyer.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="B6DE8D49404A7967EE27328A210ED84D" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
Among the twelve described species,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="ADA71EC697347F008779D53FB7218A04" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
has attracted the most attention, followed by
|
||
<taxonomicName id="E06E154CD3BE330DF3C91D7E1588FBBD" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
, although most species have been at least briefly observed in the field. Most accounts of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A315E3F8C1869F98B5A40BB451E3473E" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
biology are based on the two well-known species.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="CB86CB00E017CD21A21F29F74442BBF5" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
The literature on
|
||
<taxonomicName id="8C4132FEDC9DAF3D6D4C7637FAA63DDC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
is vast, and it is impossible to cite all of the even more significant original contributions. Good overviews of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="ECFA090D06022F5B4001340DF5DCBD0E" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
biology can be found in
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="F21145F689D1EE68904FB5AB9A368219" author="Rettenmeyer, CW" journalOrPublisher="University of Kansas Science Bulletin" pageId="209" pageNumber="210" pagination="281 - 465" title="Behavioral studies of army ants." volume="44" year="1963">Rettenmeyer (1963)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="6A372890F5089D7F0910721D6F8F72FF" author="Schneirla, TC" journalOrPublisher="W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco" pageId="211" pageNumber="212" title="Army ants. A study in social organization." year="1971">Schneirla (1971)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="81918DFFA3105D98AB2A4C0420D4A83E" author="Teles Da Silva, M" journalOrPublisher="Animal Behaviour" pageId="214" pageNumber="215" pagination="910 - 923" title="Behavior of the army ant Ecitonburchelli Westwood (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the Belem region. I. Nomadic-statary cycles." url="10.1016/0003-3472(77)90041-0" volume="25" year="1977 a">Telles Da Silva (1977a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="3129FF831652D6A825E07C2F29CA26A1" author="Teles Da Silva, M" journalOrPublisher="Boletim de Zoologia, Universidade de Sao Paulo" pageId="214" pageNumber="215" pagination="107 - 128" title="Behavior of the army ant Ecitonburchelli Westwood (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the Belem region. II. Bivouacs." volume="2" year="1977 b">1977b</bibRefCitation>
|
||
),
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="E22C36985DC0112C25FC32BD582B6B13" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">Rettenmeyer et al. (1983)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
and
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="A0C58768805064AC42F7A140049010E7" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">Gotwald (1982</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="FBDD1CCEFFA24C00D18B02D8A309D25A" author="Gotwald, WH" journalOrPublisher="Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York" pageId="201" pageNumber="202" title="Army ants: the biology of social predation" year="1995">1995</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The account below is based on these sources, unless noted otherwise.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="92BA6ED582BD185CBCAB2B58DC4DFC65" lastPageId="113" lastPageNumber="114" pageId="112" pageNumber="113">
|
||
The life of an
|
||
<taxonomicName id="918B9CBDF9FCBC1EC5D9666DA098AECC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="112" pageNumber="113" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
colony can be summarized as follows. The colony alternates between the so-called statary and nomadic phases. The cycles are understood to be
|
||
<pageBreakToken id="F3AC29FFE454E85207058D56FD5D67F1" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" start="start">regulated</pageBreakToken>
|
||
by brood development rather than an endogenous rhythm in adult ants. During the statary phase a single queen is laying eggs and the brood inside the nest consists of pupae and eggs; foraging does not happen every day and raids are relatively much less intensive. There are no emigrations to new nesting sites. In the nomadic phase, the queen stops producing new eggs and her abdomen contracts; the colony contains many developing larvae that need nutrition. Raids and emigrations usually occur every day. In
|
||
<taxonomicName id="B5129B539DDE1D4C316F1464C083EC7B" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
, the statary phase lasts on average 20 days and the nomadic phase is 14 days long.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="A1A7AA1BC5FF345529578496CE738A66" pageId="113" pageNumber="114">
|
||
A mature colony containing a single mated queen will eventually produce up to six virgin queens and hundreds to thousands of males, depending on the species. Usually the queen that emerges first leaves the colony with workers clustered around her. She has the best chance to survive and lead the fissioning part of the nest. About half of the workers eventually leave with the virgin queen. Because the colony is divided into approximately equal halves, the workers represent a substantial part of the reproductive investment. This explains the highly male-biased sex ratio, also typical of other social insects with colony fission (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="6B3A90C3B2671D1D11CFCDF8F68B0792" author="Pamilo, P" journalOrPublisher="American Naturalist" pageId="208" pageNumber="209" pagination="412 - 433" title="Evolution of colony characteristics in social insects. II. Number of reproductive individuals." url="10.1086/285224" volume="138" year="1991">Pamilo 1991</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The older, mated queen emigrates together with brood while the virgin queen disperses with the remaining workers. Shortly after the fission, the colony will accept multiple males that enter the bivouac. The males must first be accepted by the workers and they lose their wings before mating. Each male can mate only once, but
|
||
<taxonomicName id="37E323AEFA86259FD946F9BD75AF5F29" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
queens are known to mate with a dozen males on average, this mating frequency being among the highest in eusocial
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A86832BADB9A68498EA2D4D71A9D21FB" class="Insecta" lsidName="" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Hymenoptera</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="67D94D3D5DE57822ECBCFC5406497CCA" author="Kronauer, DJC" journalOrPublisher="Naturwissenschaften" pageId="204" pageNumber="205" pagination="402 - 406" title="A reassessment of the mating system characteristics of the army ant Ecitonburchellii." url="10.1007/s00114-006-0121-2" volume="93" year="2006">Kronauer et al. 2006</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="808F0AC6225AD4376678F8C005DD80FD" pageId="113" pageNumber="114">
|
||
Although mature colonies have been observed to occasionally admit new males, there is strong evidence that all of the mating occurs when the queen is young (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="543ACAE4DD859A66982FA21FE5470DE4" author="Kronauer, DJC" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="204" pageNumber="205" pagination="20 - 28" title="Do army ant queens re-mate later in life?" url="10.1007/s00040-007-0904-2" volume="54" year="2007 a">Kronauer and Boomsma 2007a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). A fertilized queen can produce up to 225,000 eggs per 35-day cycle and 14 million eggs during her lifetime (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="9FF6EBEDAEEB522A0E729F88AF97157B" author="Schneirla, TC" journalOrPublisher="W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco" pageId="211" pageNumber="212" title="Army ants. A study in social organization." year="1971">Schneirla 1971</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="020258AEA154D103A60FC4EF23E0D348" author="Kronauer, DJC" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="204" pageNumber="205" pagination="20 - 28" title="Do army ant queens re-mate later in life?" url="10.1007/s00040-007-0904-2" volume="54" year="2007 a">Kronauer and Boomsma 2007a</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="AD51C4BC6E35C40EDC74D59AD09CDC32" pageId="113" pageNumber="114">
|
||
Colony structure and nesting behavior has been studied in some detail in several species. Temporary nests are made up of bodies of workers, hanging together by their legs from a supporting structure. These bivouacs can be found in a variety of microhabitats, but common nesting sites include hollow logs, spaces between buttresses of large trees, and empty soil cavities such as abandoned mammal burrows.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="5EF8D7423D460C5E3A72018C0BAC159D" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
species vary in their preferences for bivouac sites, with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="52515CE5D2A21A6B4ACC20FB0A12677F" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="BC4740E0C88C837FB15E467BCAD3BB10" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
nesting in exposed sites, the former often hanging above ground without touching the surface.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="B731DFBD418833CFECFC084C30A997E0" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton dulcius" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dulcius">Eciton dulcius</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="E6BD5ED4C58FDCAA53B9BE164DBFCA01" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="mexicanum">Eciton mexicanum</taxonomicName>
|
||
are known to nest only in underground cavities, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="354F4C59A01512828E4100D34F7416A7" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="vagans">Eciton vagans</taxonomicName>
|
||
is intermediate, sometimes found in relatively exposed sites, but often nesting under logs and in rock crevices.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="384792DB92A79E7C4AF85011D72CD5D4" pageId="113" pageNumber="114">
|
||
Colony size estimates vary widely and reliable data exists only for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="7CD94A957C975E922605E5E1925013B3" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="21DF91D2E6763025C92ABC6B47482C50" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Rettenmeyer estimated that mature colonies of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="AB8F821FB0DC91651E6EDBE3A93DC45D" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
contain from 300,000 to 700,000 worker ants before fission and 100,000 to 500,000 for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="80DF9CD4B1297E901CB95DFB50A93FFF" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Colony densities have been estimated in several localities for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A79A3BB2996D1622E8CD15619F8AA5B4" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="113" pageNumber="114" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
, ranging from 3.5 colonies per 100 ha on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, to 11 colonies in Corcovado, Costa Rica (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="3768111AE5BC8322AF2597C0ECF128C3" author="Franks, NR" journalOrPublisher="Oecologia" pageId="200" pageNumber="201" pagination="266 - 268" title="A new method for censusing animal populations: the number of Ecitonburchelli army ant colonies on Barro Colorado Island, Panama." url="10.1007/BF00363847" volume="52" year="1982">Franks 1982</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="59F3D9680C64DA753D09FD56B1745C29" author="Vidal-Riggs, JM" journalOrPublisher="Biotropica" pageId="215" pageNumber="216" pagination="259 - 262" title="Method review: estimation of colony densities of the army ant Ecitonburchellii in Costa Rica." url="10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00347.x" volume="40" year="2008">Vidal-Riggs and Chaves-Campos 2008</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="0BDE1AEFBE9B083175905D376456C79D" pageId="114" pageNumber="115">
|
||
<pageBreakToken id="9D1FBC30DA17D58892977427CD9BC248" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" start="start">Foraging</pageBreakToken>
|
||
behavior in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="858AAF0B2513FBF2537B6858FEEEB9AB" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
has been studied extensively. Workers forage either mostly above ground (
|
||
<taxonomicName id="394A73DECBC5FBCB9ABDF8CF14866BEC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="25080BBB31445098CD1D2B4E6692CF3F" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="281AD5D633AC6FA6DC15D6257C207CB0" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton rapax" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rapax">Eciton rapax</taxonomicName>
|
||
) or with some part of the raid unfolding underground. The latter mode has been reported for most other species, but the paucity of data precludes comparisons. The surface foragers also ascend vegetation and are capable of foraging arboreally. Ant brood constitutes a major portion of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="2B48246ABCA344B11691CEB56BB8FD32" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
prey, although other arthropods, especially other social insects, are often targeted.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="0E521FD983ED47A770FE3C963AF4A356" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
is the most generalist predator, still hunting ants, but also actively preying on a variety of other arthropods and even opportunistically killing small vertebrates.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="7E68D55233755F85056443486BEADA22" pageId="114" pageNumber="115">
|
||
At the beginning of a raid, foragers emerge from the nest and gradually assemble into narrow trails that often branch and extend for up to 100 m (200 m in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="26235A029ECC18A25410BB7020DDB1FE" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton rapax" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rapax">Eciton rapax</taxonomicName>
|
||
) from the bivouac. These columns are typical of most species except for
|
||
<taxonomicName id="01622FE936AAEFE017A497E3E442A257" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
where the front of each raid progresses as a
|
||
<normalizedToken id="500A894A290DB36CBCADBAEA77B11C22" originalValue="‘swarm’">'swarm'</normalizedToken>
|
||
, a continuous front up to 10 m wide. Group foraging is a self-organizing process with no scouts to guide the ants to a particular source of food, but the workers do follow trail pheromones produced by sternal glands (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="1E727AAA85E992BF5CA3594681C5AB9A" author="Billen, J" journalOrPublisher="Netherlands Journal of Zoology" pageId="191" pageNumber="192" pagination="272 - 280" title="Trail following in army ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)." url="10.1163/156854295X00221" volume="46" year="1996">Billen and Gobin 1996</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The progress of an advancing ant column can be rapid, and was estimated at up to 20 m per hour in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="E07270C2970BA6EC3464B5CF77886C6A" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
. A remarkable adaptation for improving the efficiency of foraging is found in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F65447BE01309A52E888495706DEC28C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
. Workers of this species have the ability to form living plugs over gaps in the substrate, significantly smoothening the surface and allowing faster movement of fellow foragers (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="050F781D75887396639203F8D25F75F2" author="Powell, S" journalOrPublisher="Animal Behaviour" pageId="208" pageNumber="209" pagination="1067 - 1076" title="How a few help all: living pothole plugs speed prey delivery in the army ant Ecitonburchellii." url="10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.11.005" volume="73" year="2007">Powell and Franks 2007</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="35F91D9E1D09A770D48E6A99F71FAC22" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
foragers are also extremely efficient at cooperative transport of prey. As a group they are able to carry more than a combined mass of what they could transport individually. Although cooperative transport has been documented for many ant species, this type of
|
||
<normalizedToken id="D2E9F18D1DF56B5972D0D46B25A341BB" originalValue="‘superefficient’">'superefficient'</normalizedToken>
|
||
transport is rare (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="F8B4C50D62808E00D87CF57655B71847" author="Czaczkes, TJ" journalOrPublisher="Myrmecological News" pageId="194" pageNumber="195" pagination="1 - 11" title="Cooperative transport in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and elsewhere." volume="18" year="2013">Czaczkes and Ratnieks 2013</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="F40686258ACA7DBDE5CDD4DD83D11642" author="McCreery, HF" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="207" pageNumber="208" pagination="99 - 110" title="Cooperative transport in ants: a review of proximate mechanisms." url="10.1007/s00040-013-0333-3" volume="61" year="2014">McCreery and Breed 2014</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F062ECF72451B3FBBDFAF48394FFCDB0" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
raids also establish caches for temporary storage of prey along the trail. In the species foraging in columns there can be more than one trail radiating from a bivouac at any given time, whereas an
|
||
<taxonomicName id="8486390BA3B137C7F31CCBD02DBAB530" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
colony conducts one swarm raid at a time. The direction of raids of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="05E6B3DE6181B660281E85024F32243A" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
during the statary phase has been also shown to systematically change each day, apparently minimizing the overlap of foraging area (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="64D8186A7DEFBD93A087953B6A58FEA6" author="Willson, SK" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="219" pageNumber="220" pagination="325 - 334" title="Spatial movement optimization in Amazonian Ecitonburchellii army ants." url="10.1007/s00040-011-0171-0" volume="58" year="2011">Willson et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="4E0E6AB65B41EBA7F9A27F998B14AB98" pageId="114" pageNumber="115">
|
||
During the nomadic phase,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="02F0F2BD9906B5874F90B4AEEA2978EC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
conducts raids every day and at some point these raids transition into an exodus of workers and finally an emigration of the entire colony. The emigration doesn not always follow the same route as the
|
||
<normalizedToken id="205DE9AD2DB715F45D66F079E1C25A8C" originalValue="day’s">day's</normalizedToken>
|
||
raid and can be sustained by agitated returning foragers carrying booty past the bivouac. Other workers follow these foragers and eventually start to carry brood away from the bivouac. When the transport of brood is well advanced, myrmecophiles appear in the emigration column and the queen passes, surrounded by an entourage of workers. The duration of emigration is dependent on the colony size and species, and distances covered vary greatly as well;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="04FBDE414C084FDBCB6AD2C58E693819" author="Schneirla, TC" journalOrPublisher="W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco" pageId="211" pageNumber="212" title="Army ants. A study in social organization." year="1971">Schneirla (1971)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
reported emigration trail lengths from 100 to 450 m in
|
||
<taxonomicName id="EF806563D30E19BC3F8407994DAEE1AB" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
.
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="D48ECD8EED98B085CFB432EFB9C9B217" lastPageId="115" lastPageNumber="116" pageId="114" pageNumber="115">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="D89935911D6CB171CA896F6C5B5B89CC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
colonies have an extraordinarily rich associate fauna and over 300 species, from mites to birds, have been recorded to depend on
|
||
<taxonomicName id="390D9A7D54821DC20937B2707D09C67C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="114" pageNumber="115" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="0B4679F99D1E4BF4F804417950C36A65" pageId="114" pageNumber="115">Kistner 1982</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="2A7AF02B98FC3D0EC8721AEEE4148739" author="Rettenmeyer, CW" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="209" pageNumber="210" pagination="281 - 292" title="The largest animal association centered on one species: the army ant Ecitonburchellii and its more than 300 associates." url="10.1007/s00040-010-0128-8" volume="58" year="2011">Rettenmeyer et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). Remarkably, as many as 29 species are birds that rely almost
|
||
<pageBreakToken id="2300ED20BBBD73C11E2C96D5D796DEAE" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" start="start">exclusively</pageBreakToken>
|
||
on insect prey flushed out of the leaf litter by
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4EE50B955E88B98C1FCF780CCFA6A607" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
raids. This behavior evolved multiple times, and obligate
|
||
<normalizedToken id="307819C4D1CBFF9E4F4D1C39A96E620C" originalValue="‘antbirds’">'antbirds'</normalizedToken>
|
||
are found in the families
|
||
<taxonomicName id="C5C0FD65E3EB71F3E97C1EDD4B670CB5" class="Insecta" family="Thamnophilidae" lsidName="" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Thamnophilidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
,
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F9387DFA19A6AADFBD20804AB5FCE800" class="Insecta" family="Formicariidae" lsidName="" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Formicariidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="B501FDEC31F675E7797792B88DDD3EA9" class="Insecta" family="Furnariidae" lsidName="" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Furnariidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
(
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="2DF61B7C4096CC2CDE35C3BB87580C47" author="Willis, EO" journalOrPublisher="Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics" pageId="219" pageNumber="220" pagination="243 - 263" title="Birds and army ants." url="10.1146/annurev.es.09.110178.001331" volume="9" year="1978">Willis and Oniki 1978</bibRefCitation>
|
||
,
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="CDC28C3A1FA0549789F9FA7E8C9B1334" author="Rettenmeyer, CW" journalOrPublisher="Insectes Sociaux" pageId="209" pageNumber="210" pagination="281 - 292" title="The largest animal association centered on one species: the army ant Ecitonburchellii and its more than 300 associates." url="10.1007/s00040-010-0128-8" volume="58" year="2011">Rettenmeyer et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). The bird droppings in turn attract many butterflies, especially skippers (family
|
||
<taxonomicName id="82BAB909E38259EABEE8AAC8CB962D1D" class="Insecta" family="Hesperiidae" lsidName="" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Hesperiidae</taxonomicName>
|
||
;
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="3560347E74B57B0E4EDBFCE6E0979AE5" author="Devries, PJ" journalOrPublisher="Insect Conservation and Diversity" pageId="195" pageNumber="196" pagination="125 - 134" title="Estimating species diversity in a guild of Neotropical skippers (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) with artificial lures is a sampling problem." url="10.1111/j.1752-4598.2009.00047.x" volume="2" year="2009">DeVries et al. 2009</bibRefCitation>
|
||
). A multitude of fly, wasp, beetle, and other arthropod species are found preying on the insects fleeing from a raid or scavenging in the refuse piles of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="ADA6FDF9BF68D3EFD0217AF644ED44CC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
bivouacs. It seems that relatively very few of these are predators or parasites of the ants themselves, although rove beetles in the genus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="0737F0D3D1B75A6673564EDAA6473010" class="Insecta" family="Staphylinidae" genus="Tetradonia" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Tetradonia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Tetradonia</taxonomicName>
|
||
are known to kill and feed on injured workers. Within the colony, some mites are known to suck on the ant hemolymph.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="4D558C15680CD9D037ECAD0B78A6AD20" class="Insecta" family="Parholaspididae" genus="Macrocheles" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Macrocheles rettenmeyeri" order="Mesostigmata" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rettenmeyeri">Macrocheles rettenmeyeri</taxonomicName>
|
||
is a parasitic mite found with
|
||
<taxonomicName id="BB25FD399AC748C74D1C46A1BAACBFF8" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton dulcius" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dulcius">Eciton dulcius</taxonomicName>
|
||
. It is remarkable because it functionally replaces the
|
||
<normalizedToken id="D5B07C0A1B3799F7EC020378B37DC295" originalValue="ant’s">ant's</normalizedToken>
|
||
distal tarsal segment. The mite attaches itself to the membrane of hind leg pulvilli and its curved hind legs serve as the
|
||
<normalizedToken id="42AE55692C4345B4D244B75BC9DA6D7B" originalValue="ant’s">ant's</normalizedToken>
|
||
claws without affecting the
|
||
<normalizedToken id="E203AC89BE4B7F3CF114C0128FCB6A69" originalValue="host’s">host's</normalizedToken>
|
||
behavior. As documented for the staphylinid genus
|
||
<taxonomicName id="1928F0C1FEE37743C70F0637EEA6CC48" class="Insecta" family="Staphylinidae" genus="Vatesus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Vatesus" order="Coleoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Vatesus</taxonomicName>
|
||
, some myrmecophiles synchronize their life cycle with the nomadic and statary phases of their host
|
||
<taxonomicName id="DDE26E10077DDE6475B21115A2344FBC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
colonies (von
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="4613ECC12E9871940DC22E58B272B63A" author="Beeren, C" journalOrPublisher="Molecular Ecology" pageId="190" pageNumber="191" pagination="990 - 1005" title="Cryptic diversity, high host specificity and reproductive synchronization in army ant-associated Vatesus beetles." url="10.1111/mec.13500" volume="25" year="2016">Beeren et al. 2016</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="7FA64D8F4D96A3873E0239A8009909C2" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="059C15E5C8083EDFE7DE69E9DEC40D03" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
species are important predators of ants and other social insects and elicit a wide range of responses from its prey.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="122A22B6653AE74FE422DA3F4459607C" author="Chadab-Crepet, R" editor="Breed, MD" journalOrPublisher="Westview Press, Boulder" pageId="193" pageNumber="194" pagination="270 - 274" title="Comparative behavior of social wasps when attacked by army ants or other predators and parasites." volumeTitle="Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the IUSSI" year="1982">Chadab-Crepet and Rettenmeyer (1982)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
studied behavior of social wasps affected by army ant raids and found that many species exhibit coordinated alarm response allowing the adult wasps to survive and reestablish the nest later.
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="288547B954E346EA3DDCF12680A5A06B" author="Dejean, A" journalOrPublisher="Myrmecological News" pageId="194" pageNumber="195" pagination="17 - 24" title="The antipredatory behaviours of Neotropical ants towards army ant raids (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)." volume="19" year="2013">Dejean et al. (2013)</bibRefCitation>
|
||
review the antipredatory behaviors of ants to army ants in general and to
|
||
<taxonomicName id="835D1E87556DCDF46C8D6E93E4B1FB84" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="2FA555265CC2B5522FCAF0E8D52011D3" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
in particular. They show that many species evacuate the nest in the face of an
|
||
<taxonomicName id="BAED71C2D1A16D0D74EC14FC1A971D6C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
raid. This behavior ranges from well-organized evacuations starting in advance of the attack and resulting in no casualties on either side to cases where a substantial portion of brood is lost by the defending species.
|
||
<taxonomicName id="6E5E411D7C3A7BA4E2E5E93EE6F004F9" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Paratrechina" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Paratrechina longicornis" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="longicornis">Paratrechina longicornis</taxonomicName>
|
||
is an example of the former, while the less efficient
|
||
<taxonomicName id="B788C5EAADD18AAD40DB8E15C969A0BC" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pachycondyla" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Pachycondyla harpax" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="harpax">Pachycondyla harpax</taxonomicName>
|
||
represents the latter. Some species of ants are ignored by
|
||
<taxonomicName id="6EC5563AA9E36886E6EE723935FD7DDD" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
, particularly the enormous colonies of leaf-cutting
|
||
<taxonomicName id="8422F8B681276A1DC443489323245CA0" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Atta" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Atta" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Atta</taxonomicName>
|
||
, and some can have a repellent effect, like the antplant-associated
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F6F36EF2A50B973444719ACB3348CEB8" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Pseudomyrmex" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Pseudomyrmex ferrugineus" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="ferrugineus">Pseudomyrmex ferrugineus</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="47F700AE65FFEF29DF6758A89D532D30" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Azteca" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Azteca alfari" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="alfari">Azteca alfari</taxonomicName>
|
||
. A few species, such as the arboreal
|
||
<taxonomicName id="E689AF7D4C5C138BA958BFD4EEE7D702" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Azteca" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Azteca chartifex" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="chartifex">Azteca chartifex</taxonomicName>
|
||
and
|
||
<taxonomicName id="6EC6E5F54918CEBDBB1AD2D7ADCA1075" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Dolichoderus" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Dolichoderus bispinosus" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="bispinosus">Dolichoderus bispinosus</taxonomicName>
|
||
, manage to resist
|
||
<taxonomicName id="72333314618F045724596C3A15A03662" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
raids by attacking the raiding army ants (
|
||
<bibRefCitation id="7C19DEDDB0E2319F5FF4B606833574AA" author="Dejean, A" journalOrPublisher="Myrmecological News" pageId="194" pageNumber="195" pagination="17 - 24" title="The antipredatory behaviours of Neotropical ants towards army ant raids (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)." volume="19" year="2013">Dejean et al. 2013</bibRefCitation>
|
||
).
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
<subSubSection id="F8A4E813B035FA84B64B812369D472B9" lastPageId="116" lastPageNumber="117" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" type="species of eciton">
|
||
<paragraph id="6AB9B6941ACE72608320F9580F88B365" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
Species of
|
||
<taxonomicName id="7D208C6613CD4B1379C4E7A53023F57C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Eciton</taxonomicName>
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="76BAA7CCF3E5DDD285DBE5E3AF9B0AD8" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="1DA5E671510100536279C16C420A7E12" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="burchellii">Eciton burchellii</taxonomicName>
|
||
(Westwood, 1842): Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="370A20D7EA745D80FB6003E48C0876A1" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="445AB353132B8571D9D0A8F0FC064EA5" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="burchellii" subspecies="cupiens">Eciton burchellii cupiens</taxonomicName>
|
||
Santschi, 1923a: French Guiana
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="9BE23534DC5CB94F774139F993F3D879" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="6DC09224D900CFD08D4CC35FA0E74877" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="burchellii" subspecies="foreli">Eciton burchellii foreli</taxonomicName>
|
||
Mayr, 1886b: Panama
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="AE1C85066CBE4148ECF4FDEC62B8090D" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="664C5EA5B448B9720DC3942C5707ED87" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="burchellii" subspecies="parvispinum">Eciton burchellii parvispinum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Forel, 1899: Guatemala
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="1E804BDC2022295BBC5408FA2821A30A" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="1F7D7E2B1C1B7FD8049E185D353C2463" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton burchellii" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="burchellii" subspecies="urichi">Eciton burchellii urichi</taxonomicName>
|
||
Forel, 1899: Trinidad and Tobago
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="9CB6618E67CDCB35C1BB7CCE4ACF18B5" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="957DACCEF8A75E38ECC4696A77E352CE" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton drepanophorum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="drepanophorum">Eciton drepanophorum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Smith, F., 1858: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="B257AB62ACAD383253D09A8D8EEA8B93" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="7EA065630267274B90571B3651864020" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton dulcium" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="dulcium">Eciton dulcium</taxonomicName>
|
||
Forel, 1912a: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="A7F8C8CE2639A20C5E37FE3CDFFEB939" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="41D63AC2A0BDD1E81956A6DB3D37F278" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton dulcium" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="dulcium" subspecies="crassinode">Eciton dulcium crassinode</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Panama
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="ECD1E734EA1EB7116BBE8CB74D885A14" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="EBE627F907DF52AFFCE91168F9B46E24" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton hamatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="hamatum">Eciton hamatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
(Fabricius, 1782): French Guiana
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="32EFBE54230BA21EC43FA4C29EA13450" pageId="115" pageNumber="116">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="D3A993DF7457A230AD1794E55B9E127A" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton jansoni" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="115" pageNumber="116" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="jansoni">Eciton jansoni</taxonomicName>
|
||
Forel, 1912a: Nicaragua
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="C179BB5616568302547AB4CE7682C5EA" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="956F3F65960D72B8DE55C4B82DF881EF" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton lucanoides" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="lucanoides">
|
||
<pageBreakToken id="0E04BA0F631A73AC8992633C26B00CC6" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" start="start">Eciton</pageBreakToken>
|
||
lucanoides
|
||
</taxonomicName>
|
||
Emery, 1894: Peru
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="8ADC8CC0994C861FEDAF4CD13DE8E9E3" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="8D67A90393F9BE6FD9D9886D2B9CD982" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton lucanoides" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="lucanoides" subspecies="conquistador">Eciton lucanoides conquistador</taxonomicName>
|
||
Weber, 1949b: Panama
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="F424F4C05CF3590020AA0D7BA4FD6C05" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="2B185893EFF5D510B07862A10B9D8241" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="mexicanum">Eciton mexicanum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Roger, 1863: Mexico
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="A3B9A874DB6A345F473C06D4EEB6170D" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="C28C529C9DBE6FCA3680CC2CBE61200D" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="mexicanum" subspecies="argentinum">Eciton mexicanum argentinum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Argentina
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="40782D236FD7856E3E6EFE74DC85FADD" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="C6DF924925BD5A29947116EDF597F20C" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="mexicanum" subspecies="goianum">Eciton mexicanum goianum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="6195B985EAFA69B001D12D1EBA73BBE6" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="D41D29051DE4390B5C177815675EC9CD" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="mexicanum" subspecies="latidens">Eciton mexicanum latidens</taxonomicName>
|
||
Santschi, 1911b: French Guiana
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="166BF1138EC84EDE07F14DD524B60399" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="3136AE9E868D773F630EC71705D8A9A1" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="mexicanum" subspecies="moralum">Eciton mexicanum moralum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Santschi, 1923c: French Guiana
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="C5F7DFA1FB179CC18CD54588559F45A4" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F2BDC8589448C9FA8F25DB746569AD87" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton mexicanum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="mexicanum" subspecies="panamense">Eciton mexicanum panamense</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Panama
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="AF55EF8F4E3126051EFFFB596053E96A" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="E9A15A766DE7BE3DE41436D04F66CFC5" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton quadriglume" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="quadriglume">Eciton quadriglume</taxonomicName>
|
||
(Haliday, 1836): Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="5F0C45A1065D68E17B0DFE96D3F0B228" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A3516AAB8ABBA9F301F1EBFB95403CE8" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton rapax" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="rapax">Eciton rapax</taxonomicName>
|
||
Smith, F., 1855: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="6704B6B70CAFC50763A9690632105EF4" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F52CF9398A8EA435B7EF3B37841EEC99" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton setigaster" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="setigaster">Eciton setigaster</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1953: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="727BF63D1686FC373052120EAB88DF0F" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="F020549B28E99571F2BC2746B8A2F838" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton uncinatum" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="uncinatum">Eciton uncinatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1953: Ecuador
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="B707FD27870281BA5BE42AE14072E40C" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="7A857A5BBB278A2B5F7A1848FCC17006" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="vagans">Eciton vagans</taxonomicName>
|
||
(Olivier, 1792): French Guiana
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="78D9C828F740DCA150E184BF10704C0E" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="645CE55C48AC2541C7FC31FA2809D564" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="allognathum">Eciton vagans allognathum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Venezuela
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="BB929C12E32F5228AF08E9F33FDCD512" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="6DC5991F64FC21E5FFD3AAF18964DDA1" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="angustatum">Eciton vagans angustatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Roger, 1863: Mexico
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="410D00270B022C528AB4E5D1B13892F8" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="628890F8147A74D9953C6DCBFC333073" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="dispar">Eciton vagans dispar</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="1B5DF686D39E02011522D3ACCB85EBBD" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="A5D37D2DDBCD5DE5C64B0F31F5227AB8" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="dubitatum">Eciton vagans dubitatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Emery, 1896b: Paraguay
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="817FF4A666C9DFA7049E881D87D17B15" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="59922069E7EC07EEEB3237A49AA90630" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="fur">Eciton vagans fur</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Brazil
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
<paragraph id="A4FB2D4CD72B041E7727B18A37D0846B" pageId="116" pageNumber="117">
|
||
<taxonomicName id="33504E0D708D6B5C8A946ED6A493EF94" class="Insecta" family="Formicidae" genus="Eciton" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Eciton vagans" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="116" pageNumber="117" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subspecies" species="vagans" subspecies="mutatum">Eciton vagans mutatum</taxonomicName>
|
||
Borgmeier, 1955: Costa Rica
|
||
</paragraph>
|
||
</subSubSection>
|
||
</treatment>
|
||
</document> |