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<document id="1A34ABE74C78A53D6B6F726A92F77F78" ID-CLB-Dataset="3339" ID-DOI="10.5281/zenodo.5720730" ID-GBIF-Dataset="1a09abc8-6f9e-4314-93e9-51d39a7518bf" ID-ISBN="978-84-96553-77-4" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720730" IM.metadata_requiresApprovalFor="plazi" IM.taxonomicNames_requiresApprovalFor="plazi" checkinTime="1633651975037" checkinUser="conny" docAuthor="Don E. Wilson &amp; Russell A. Mittermeier" docDate="2011" docId="5E3FD96DFFEA721D493EF4A8FE6070D9" docLanguage="en" docName="hbmw_2_Rhinocerotidae_0144.pdf.imf" docOrigin="Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions" docTitle="Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest 1822" docType="treatment" docVersion="13" lastPageNumber="180" masterDocId="A206A115FFEE72184C5FFF9BFF997D59" masterDocTitle="Rhinocerotidae" masterLastPageNumber="181" masterPageNumber="144" pageNumber="179" updateTime="1699458922425" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:title id="99A89F5789B29FCAB6AA0E604A2FC6A3">Rhinocerotidae</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="625C8FDDA5E9A6361B834DD9F956D6B3">Don E. Wilson</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="585349DF696B3ACBB75E89A80B6A8752">Russell A. Mittermeier</mods:namePart>
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<mods:publisher id="16DDD18C7991F38561FA5470782C4C1B">Lynx Edicions</mods:publisher>
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<mods:title id="D99832E835A9F9E6C4665A8C5A525250">Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals</mods:title>
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<treatment id="5E3FD96DFFEA721D493EF4A8FE6070D9" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720748" ID-GBIF-Taxon="190577721" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720748" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:5E3FD96DFFEA721D493EF4A8FE6070D9" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/5E3FD96DFFEA721D493EF4A8FE6070D9" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="180" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C493EF4A8FA187638" box="[1377,1409,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="multiple">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493EF4A8FA187638" blockId="4.[1375,2238,2867,2991]" box="[1377,1409,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEA721C493EF4A8FA187638" box="[1377,1409,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<figureCitation id="4EAD74FEFFEA721C493EF4A8FA187638" box="[1377,1409,2867,2913]" captionStartId="2.[106,138,3422,3443]" captionTargetBox="[12,2751,14,3632]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="1. White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), 2. Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), 3. Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 4. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), 5. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514203" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514203/files/figure.png" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">4.</figureCitation>
</heading>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C49D6F4A8F9627638" blockId="4.[1375,2238,2867,2991]" box="[1417,1787,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEA721C49D6F4A8F9627638" box="[1417,1787,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEA721C49D6F4A8F9627638" box="[1417,1787,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Javan Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4B70F4A8F7257638" box="[1839,2236,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C4B70F4A8F7257638" blockId="4.[1375,2238,2867,2991]" box="[1839,2236,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEA721C4B70F4A8F7257638" box="[1839,2236,2867,2913]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C4B70F4A8F7257638" ID-CoL="4S84X" authorityName="Desmarest" authorityYear="1822" box="[1839,2236,2867,2913]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sondaicus">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4B70F4A8F7257638" box="[1839,2236,2867,2913]" italics="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Rhinoceros sondaicus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C493EF4E8F80176F6" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493EF4E8F72776D1" blockId="4.[1375,2238,2867,2991]" box="[1377,2238,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEA721C493EF4E8F72776D1" box="[1377,2238,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493EF4E8FA3476D1" bold="true" box="[1377,1453,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEA721C49E8F4E8F9E176D1" box="[1463,1656,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
Rhinocéros de
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</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4AD1F4E8F97076D1" bold="true" box="[1678,1769,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEA721C4AADF4E8F8E176D1" box="[1778,1912,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Java-Nashorn</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4BD2F4E8F87176D1" bold="true" box="[1933,2024,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEA721C4BACF4E8F7F376D1" box="[2035,2154,2931,2952]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Rinoceronte</vernacularName>
de
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</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493FF401F80176F6" blockId="4.[1375,2238,2867,2991]" box="[1376,1944,2970,2991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEA721C493FF401F80176F6" box="[1376,1944,2970,2991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493FF401F9CF76F6" bold="true" box="[1376,1622,2970,2991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEA721C4A3FF401F80176F6" box="[1632,1944,2970,2991]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4900F47EF79F76A7" box="[1375,2054,3045,3070]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="reference_group">
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<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4900F47EFA6376A7" bold="true" box="[1375,1530,3045,3070]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C4A59F47EF79B76A7" ID-CoL="4S84X" authority="Desmarest, 1822" authorityName="Desmarest" authorityYear="1822" box="[1542,2050,3045,3070]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sondaicus">Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest, 1822</taxonomicName>
,
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
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<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEA721C4453F47EF7D376A7" box="[2060,2122,3045,3070]" country="Indonesia" name="Jawa Timur" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Java</collectingRegion>
,
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.
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</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C493FF39FF6EA7115" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493FF39FF6EA7115" blockId="4.[1374,2580,3043,3470]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
Three subspecies are recognized historically, but
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C4449F39FF614717C" authority="(Lesson, 1838)" baseAuthorityName="Lesson" baseAuthorityYear="1838" box="[2070,2445,3076,3109]" kingdom="Animalia" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" rank="subSpecies" subSpecies="inermis">race inermis (Lesson, 1838)</taxonomicName>
from
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and
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is extinct. Two extant subspecies currently recognized.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C493FF3CDF76D719B" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="distribution">
<caption id="82E938F3FFEA721C493FF3CDF76D719B" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720742" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720742" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5720742/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" targetBox="[190,783,286,701]" targetPageId="5">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493FF3CDF977712A" blockId="4.[1374,2580,3043,3470]" box="[1376,1774,3158,3187]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493FF3CDF977712A" bold="true" box="[1376,1774,3158,3187]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493EF31AF80971C3" blockId="4.[1374,2580,3043,3470]" box="[1377,1936,3201,3226]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C493EF31AF80971C3" authority="Desmarest, 1822" authorityName="Desmarest" authorityYear="1822" box="[1377,1936,3201,3226]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="sondaicus" subSpecies="sondaicus">R.s.sondaicusDesmarest,1822—WJava.</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493EF33EF76D719B" blockId="4.[1374,2580,3043,3470]" box="[1377,2292,3237,3266]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C493EF33EF973719B" authority="Heude, 1892" authorityName="Heude" authorityYear="1892" box="[1377,1770,3237,3266]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="sondaicus" subSpecies="anamiticus">R. s. anamiticus Heude, 1892</taxonomicName>
—
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(now close to extinction).
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721D4900F353FC607F12" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="180" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="description">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721D4900F353FC607F12" blockId="4.[1374,2580,3043,3470]" lastBlockId="5.[807,1393,283,705]" lastPageId="5" lastPageNumber="180" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4900F353F9C371B0" bold="true" box="[1375,1626,3272,3305]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 305-344 cm, no reliable data available on tail length, shoulder height 150-170 cm; weight 1200-1500 kg. Few data exist on body mass of wild individuals. In many ways, the Javan Rhino is a smaller version of the Greater Onehorned
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C498CF2A5F9EA7006" box="[1491,1651,3390,3423]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C4AD5F2A5F8AB7006" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[1674,1842,3390,3423]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="unicornis">R. unicornis</taxonomicName>
). Single, nasal horn; length of horn averages
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C45E4F2A5F5967006" box="[2491,2575,3390,3423]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.5" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="cm" value="25.0">25 cm</quantity>
in males, but unlike in the Greater One-horned Rhino, female Javan Rhinos typically lack horns. Skin folds are noticeable, as in Greater One-horned Rhinos, but adult males lack the pronounced “bib” of the former species. Hair is limited to fringes of ears, eyelashes, and tail tip. Body color is gray and mosaic-like pattern on skin is quite noticeable on rump. Pedal scent glands present.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4F78FDCEFBEA7EF4" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4F78FDCEFBEA7EF4" blockId="5.[807,1393,283,705]" lastBlockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4F78FDCEFC0F7F2B" bold="true" box="[807,918,597,626]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Habitat.</emphasis>
The Javan Rhino is found in lowland semi-evergreen forest in its last refuge on Java and in rattan-dominated scrub in its last outpost in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4E1DFD5CFD257FB1" box="[578,700,711,744]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
. Previous records showed that Javan Rhinos are good climbers and ascended into montane forests to feed. They also occupied similar alluvial flood plain habitats as Greater One-horned Rhinos. Of some concern in Ujung Kulon,Java, is that the forest has become too mature to provide enough forage for the remaining population. The eruption of the Krakatau Volcano in 1883, and the subsequent tsunami, likely had a profound effect on Javan Rhino habitat.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4CE0FC28FB4B78DD" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4CE0FC28FB4B78DD" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4CE0FC28FE5F7E8D" bold="true" box="[191,454,947,980]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
Recent field studies of diet are lacking. Historical accounts, based on feeding signs, show thatJavan Rhinos eat mostly browse. However, their occupation of alluvial flood plains suggests that grasses were a much larger part of the diet in such habitats. Browse species in Ujung Kulon include more than 100 plants, but no quantitative data on rhino diets are available. In
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4EA0FBCBFCE07928" box="[767,889,1104,1137]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
, some of the plants browsed include the climbing Acacia (A. pennata—also eaten by the Greater One-horned Rhino), two species of rattan (Calamus), two Bambusoid grasses (Bambusia), a tree fern (Cyathea), and Strychnos nux-vomica. Javan Rhinos, given their size and browsing behavior, might be expected to have a major impact on seedling and sapling recruitment of woody plants when at normal densities. The Javan Rhino’s congener, the Greater One-horned Rhino, exerts strong selective pressure on forest structure and canopy composition by inhibiting vertical growth of saplings, by frequent browsing and trampling.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4CE0FA14FC3A7B10" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="breeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4CE0FA14FC3A7B10" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4CE0FA14FEDC78F5" bold="true" box="[191,325,1423,1452]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Breeding.</emphasis>
Virtually nothing is known about the breeding biology in this species. A few observations indicate that, as in Greater One-horned Rhinos, males engage in courtship chases with females that can last for several hundred meters and be accompanied by loud vocalizations. No data exist on gestation, season of parturition, age at first reproduction, or other critical reproductive features.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4CE2F9D4FAF77AF2" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="activity">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4CE2F9D4FAF77AF2" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4CE2F9D4FE3E7B29" bold="true" box="[189,423,1615,1648]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
In
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4D88F9D4FDC87B29" box="[471,593,1615,1648]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
, the remaining population was thought to be largely nocturnal. Perhaps this behavior is as much due to the threat of poachers as a preference for nocturnal feeding. Javan Rhinos may be too large to feed only at night, as they may need more food to meet their nutritional demands than they can eat during the night, even though daytime foraging might put them at risk. Their congener, the Greater One-horned Rhino, feeds both day and night. The heat and humidity of the Javan site suggests that rhinos must spend a considerable amount of time in wallows. Early accounts frequently mentioned the importance of wallows in the landscape. When wallows dry up, Javan Rhinos may use tidal forests and muddy banks to reduce heat stress.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4CE0F82AFE4675E7" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4CE0F82AFE4675E7" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4CE0F82AFC1F7A8B" bold="true" box="[191,902,1969,2002]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
Little is known about movements and spacing in this species except from historical records. Rhinos are so few in number today that they can be widely spaced. Accounts from the mid-1700s in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D48ECF79BFB767578" box="[1203,1263,2048,2081]" country="Indonesia" name="Jawa Timur" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Java</collectingRegion>
describe bounties on Javan Rhinos to reduce crop depredation. The large numbers shot in small areas suggest that, even if this species was mostly solitary, it lived in high densities; home ranges were likely small, on average the size of those observed in Greater One-horned Rhinos.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4C9FF75EFB1C71E5" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="conservation">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4C9FF75EFB1C71E5" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4C9FF75EFDBB75BF" bold="true" box="[192,546,2245,2278]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4E0DF76FFD057454" box="[594,668,2292,2317]" name="India" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">India</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4EF1F76FFCCB7454" box="[686,850,2292,2317]" name="Bangladesh" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Bangladesh</collectingCountry>
, south-western
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4872F76FFB1B7454" box="[1069,1154,2292,2317]" name="China" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">China</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D48CBF76FFA8E7454" box="[1172,1303,2292,2317]" name="Myanmar" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Myanmar</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4977F76FFF66746C" name="Thailand" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Thailand</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4D4FF687FECB746C" box="[272,338,2332,2357]" name="Laos" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Laos</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4D3FF687FE43746C" box="[352,474,2332,2357]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4DB5F687FDE5746C" box="[490,636,2332,2357]" name="Cambodia" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Cambodia</collectingCountry>
, Peninsular
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4F74F687FC3B746C" box="[811,930,2332,2357]" name="Malaysia" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
, Sumatra, and Java. Now restricted to two sites, and the last Javan Rhino in Cat Loc,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4FCBF6A1FB977402" box="[916,1038,2362,2395]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
, may have been poached in 2010. This species is widely considered to be the most endangered mammal on earth. The tragic decline in the Javan Rhino is one of the most unfortunate conservation stories of our time. In the 1980s, when it became clear that the Ujung Kulon population had plateaued at around 50 individuals, several efforts were made to promote translocation to another site in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4EDAF598FC887779" box="[645,785,2563,2592]" name="Indonesia" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Indonesia</collectingCountry>
. Captive breeding specialists from western countries discouraged such efforts even though they have been highly successful in repopulating the range of other rhino species, including the Greater One-horned Rhino. Today, translocation plans are underway and it is hoped that a second population will be reestablished in a reserve on
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4F5AF53EFCDA77E7" box="[773,835,2725,2750]" country="Indonesia" name="Jawa Timur" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Java</collectingRegion>
. Prior to the Vietham War, or certainly the
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4CA9F558FE6A77BD" box="[246,499,2755,2788]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">French Indochina</collectingCountry>
war, there may have been more Javan Rhinos in Indochina than in Java. No western biologist had the opportunity to study this area at the time. The rhino population in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4D84F489FDCB766A" box="[475,594,2834,2867]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
survived the hostilities, but has dwindled rapidly over the past two decades. However, the opportunity to bolster this population is complicated because there are no animals in captivity, and the Ujung Kulon population is a differ ent subspecies. Such rescue efforts may be moot, given that a recent survey using scent dogs to find rhino droppings failed to turn up any samples, and a poached rhino was found with, a bullet lodged in its leg. Despite the nearby Cat Tien National Park, this small population remained in a scrub jungle (Cat Loc) lacking a corridor to connect with Cat Tien. The
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4D8AF3BEFDD2711F" box="[469,587,3109,3142]" name="Vietnam" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
population now appears doomed, but there is still hope for the Ujung Kulon population if translocation efforts go forward. The rapid increase in small founder populations of Greater One-horned Rhinos translocated to new reserves suggests that rapid growth is possible if poaching is controlled.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4C9EF351FE6070D9" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4C9EF351FE6070D9" blockId="5.[189,1393,711,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4C9EF351FEC371BA" bold="true" box="[193,346,3274,3299]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Ammann (1985), Barbour &amp; Allen (1932), Burton (1951), Corbet &amp; Hill (1992), Cranbrook et al. (2007), Foose &amp; van Strien (1997), Hariyadi et al. (2010), Hoogerwerf (1970), Khan (1989), Mackinnon &amp; Santiapillai (1991), Polet &amp; Ling (2004), Polet et al. (1999). Prothero &amp; Schoch (1989), Ramano et al. (1993), Sadjudin (1987), Schenkel &amp; Schenkel-Hulliger (1969a, 1969b), Schenkel et al. (1978), van Strien &amp; Rookmaaker (2010), Talukdar et al. (2009).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E6FE2BFA407C8F" blockId="5.[1463,2490,432,550]" box="[1465,1497,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEB721D49E6FE2BFA407C8F" box="[1465,1497,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<figureCitation id="4EAD74FEFFEB721D49E6FE2BFA407C8F" box="[1465,1497,432,470]" captionStartId="2.[106,138,3422,3443]" captionTargetBox="[12,2751,14,3632]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="1. White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), 2. Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), 3. Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 4. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), 5. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514203" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514203/files/figure.png" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">5.</figureCitation>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49B4FE2BF8287C8F" blockId="5.[1463,2490,432,550]" box="[1515,1969,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEB721D49B4FE2BF8287C8F" box="[1515,1969,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D49B4FE2BF8287C8F" box="[1515,1969,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sumatran Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4BBDFE2BF6237C8F" box="[2018,2490,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4BBDFE2BF6237C8F" blockId="5.[1463,2490,432,550]" box="[2018,2490,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEB721D4BBDFE2BF6237C8F" box="[2018,2490,432,470]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4BBDFE2BF6237C8F" ID-CoL="35JV8" baseAuthorityName="G.Fischer" baseAuthorityYear="1814" box="[2018,2490,432,470]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Dicerorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sumatrensis">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4BBDFE2BF6237C8F" box="[2018,2490,432,470]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D49E6FE72F73E7F7C" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E6FE72F6127CA7" blockId="5.[1463,2490,432,550]" box="[1465,2443,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEB721D49E6FE72F6127CA7" box="[1465,2443,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E6FE72F99C7CA7" bold="true" box="[1465,1541,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D4A50FE72F9617CA7" box="[1551,1784,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
Rhinocéros
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4AD9FE72F9617CA7" box="[1670,1784,489,510]" country="Indonesia" name="Sumatera Selatan" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">de Sumatra</collectingRegion>
</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4B52FE72F8F07CA7" bold="true" box="[1805,1897,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D4B2DFE72F7877CA7" box="[1906,2078,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sumatra-Nashorn</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D446BFE72F7167CA7" bold="true" box="[2100,2191,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D44C6FE72F6897CA7" box="[2201,2320,489,510]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Rinoceronte</vernacularName>
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4546FE72F6127CA7" box="[2329,2443,489,510]" country="Indonesia" name="Sumatera Selatan" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">de Sumatra</collectingRegion>
</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E7FD8BF73E7F7C" blockId="5.[1463,2490,432,550]" box="[1464,2215,528,549]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEB721D49E7FD8BF73E7F7C" box="[1464,2215,528,549]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E7FD8BF9367F7C" bold="true" box="[1464,1711,528,549]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D4AE8FD8BF8697F7C" box="[1719,2032,528,549]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
,
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEB721D4BA1FD8BF73E7F7C" box="[2046,2215,528,549]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Hairy Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D447FFDCCF7F07FC3" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D447FFDCCF7F07FC3" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D447FFDCCF7237F2D" bold="true" box="[2080,2234,599,628]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4494FDCCF7FD7FC3" ID-CoL="5a7f294c-6bfd-4201-b9ab-6b5c72d455a9" authority="Fischer, 1814" authorityName="Fischer" authorityYear="1814" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sumatrensis">Rhinoceros sumatrensis Fischer, 1814</taxonomicName>
,
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D442AFDE6F7767FC3" box="[2165,2287,637,666]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="materials_examined">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D442AFDE6F7767FC3" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" box="[2165,2287,637,666]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<materialsCitation id="66FE6226FFEB721D442AFDE6F7767FC3" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785193301" box="[2165,2287,637,666]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D442AFDE6F7727FC3" box="[2165,2283,637,666]" country="Indonesia" name="Sumatera Utara" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sumatra</collectingRegion>
.
</materialsCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D447FFD3AF6227F9B" box="[2080,2491,673,706]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D447FFD3AF6227F9B" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" box="[2080,2491,673,706]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Three subspecies recognized.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D447FFD52F6FE7EF7" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="distribution">
<caption id="82E938F3FFEB721D447FFD52F6FE7EF7" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720744" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720744" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5720744/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" targetBox="[1462,2055,601,1016]" targetPageId="5">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D447FFD52F6367FB3" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" box="[2080,2479,713,746]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D447FFD52F6367FB3" bold="true" box="[2080,2479,713,746]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D447FFD63F6E07E61" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D447FFD63F6E07E61" authority="Fischer, 1814" authorityName="Fischer" authorityYear="1814" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Dicerorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="sumatrensis" subSpecies="sumatrensis">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D447FFD63F6E07E61" name="Malaysia" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">D.s.sumatrensisFischer,1814—SumatraandPeninsularMalaysia.</collectingCountry>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4440FCDDF5B77E06" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" box="[2079,2606,838,863]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4440FCDDF5B77E06" authority="Groves, 1965" authorityName="Groves" authorityYear="1965" box="[2079,2606,838,863]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Dicerorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="sumatrensis" subSpecies="harrissoni">D.s.harrissoniGroves,1965—Borneo.</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4440FCF5F6FE7EF7" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4440FCF5F6357EDE" authority="Buckland, 1872" authorityName="Buckland" authorityYear="1872" box="[2079,2476,878,903]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Dicerorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="sumatrensis" subSpecies="lasiotis">D. s. lasiotis Buckland, 1872</taxonomicName>
—
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Asia (could be extinct).
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D4440FC2FF8DB78DC" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="description">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D4440FC2FF8DB78DC" blockId="5.[2079,2665,599,1021]" lastBlockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D4440FC2FF6AC7E8C" bold="true" box="[2079,2357,948,981]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 236-318 cm, no reliable data available on tail length, shoulder
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4AF5FB9DF888797A" box="[1706,1809,1030,1059]" country="Mozambique" name="Tete" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">TT</collectingRegion>
100-150 cm; weight 600-950 kg. Few data exist on body mass of wild individuals. The Sumatran Rhino is the smallest of the five living rhino species, the most ancient in the lineage, and the most distinct in appearance. This is the only Asian rhinoceros featuring two (small) horns, hairy ear tufts, and a hairy, reddishbrown skin. The relative degree of hairiness of the body varies with age and among individuals, but clearly separates this species from the other four in appearance. Two clear skin folds present on body. Size of horns varies but typically larger in males; often only the nasal horn is conspicuous, the second or frontal horn is much reduced in size. Horn lengths from some museum specimens are large (25-80 cm) but may not be indicative of average size.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D49E8FA17F7CD7A6C" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E8FA17F7CD7A6C" blockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E8FA17F9BF78F4" bold="true" box="[1463,1574,1420,1453]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Habitat.</emphasis>
Sumatran Rhinos seem to be generalists in habitat. They were formerly found from lowland semi-evergreen forests to high-elevation cloud forests. They ascended and descended steep terrain, and still do in Kerinci-Seblat National Park. This species is also an excellent swimmer, even in salt water, so probably reached small islands close to coastlines. The natural history literature provides evidence that bulls often resided on the edge of forests where they abutted villages. Recently, a male Sumatran Rhino in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D49E7F9ECF9927BC1" box="[1464,1547,1655,1688]" country="Malaysia" name="Sabah" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sabah</collectingRegion>
wandered from the forest edge into a village, where it was captured and placed in a breeding program. Many of the Sumatran Rhinos in semi-captive situations show a preference for food plants typical of second growth forests, light gaps, and disturbed areas. Thus, it is likely that continuous primary forests held lower densities of this species than more heterogeneous forested regions.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D49E8F8DFF68975E6" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E8F8DFF68975E6" blockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E8F8DFF9277A04" bold="true" box="[1463,1726,1860,1885]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
Prior to captive breeding efforts in the region, information about feeding behavior and diet selection was largely based on signs of browse in forest patches. Much has been learned recently about the diet of the Sumatran Rhino from semi-captive animals in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4B5CF82DF8C07A8A" box="[1795,1881,1974,2003]" country="Malaysia" name="Sabah" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sabah</collectingRegion>
, Peninsular
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEB721D4457F82DF7E67A8A" box="[2056,2175,1974,2003]" name="Malaysia" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
, and Sumatra. This species is mostly a browser, but prefers pioneer and second-growth plants such as
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D45CFF842F5FF7AA3" box="[2448,2662,2009,2042]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Euphorbiaceae" genus="Macaranga" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malpighiales" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="undetermined">Macaranga spp.</taxonomicName>
and other
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4A12F79BF8EE7578" authority="Ficus" authorityName="Ficus" box="[1613,1911,2048,2081]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Euphorbiaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Malpighiales" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Euphorbiaceae, Ficus</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4BD8F79BF73E7578" authority="(Nauclea)" baseAuthorityName="Nauclea" box="[1927,2215,2048,2081]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Rubiaceae" genus="Rubiaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Gentianales" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">Rubiaceae (Nauclea)</taxonomicName>
, and other saplings and shrubs. Typically, fast-growing trees and treelets of second growth and light gaps are lower in secondary compounds than plants of the primary forest understory, and this factor may also influence diet selection. Like other browsing rhinos, this species will walk over saplings to reach leaves clustered at the tips of branches.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D49E8F752F8357711" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="breeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49E8F752F8357711" blockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E8F752F9A475BF" bold="true" box="[1463,1597,2249,2278]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Breeding.</emphasis>
Like the Greater One-horned
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D4BA1F752F70775BF" box="[2046,2206,2249,2278]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEB721D44E9F752F65A75BF" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[2230,2499,2249,2278]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="unicornis">Rhinoceros unicornis</taxonomicName>
) and other rhinos, Sumatran Rhino males are reported to be aggressive towards females and are known to injure or even kill them during courtship. However, aggressive chasing may be part of the courtship ritual for some rhino species, and without such behavior, copulation or insemination may be unsuccessful. Nevertheless, captive breeding efforts for this species keep males away from females until estrus and do not allow space or opportunity for chasing. Data from zoo populations reveal a gestation period of 15-16 months, an intercalf interval of 3-5 years, and calves remaining with their mother for 2-3 years. Females do not reach sexual maturity until 6-7 years, slower than the larger bodied Greater One-horned Rhino.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721D49EAF5C9F63E766A" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="activity">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721D49EAF5C9F63E766A" blockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49EAF5C9F93A7736" bold="true" box="[1461,1699,2642,2671]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
Most records show remaining populations to be largely nocturnal, but this pattern may also be a function of intensive poaching pressure across the range. The heat and humidity in the range of this species suggest that rhinos must spend a considerable amount of time in wallows. Early accounts frequently mention intensive feeding in the morning hours, the importance of wallows in the landscape, and the animals’ presence of up to several hours in a wallow both day and night.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEB721E49E8F4A5FE8A7C0C" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="181" pageId="5" pageNumber="180" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEB721E49E8F4A5FE8A7C0C" blockId="5.[1461,2666,1030,3456]" lastBlockId="6.[104,1311,269,1177]" lastPageId="6" lastPageNumber="181" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEB721D49E8F4A5F7197602" bold="true" box="[1463,2176,2878,2907]" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
Little is known about movements and spacing in this species except from historical records. Seasonal movements seem to be influenced by the rainy season, with rhinos leaving flooded areas in the lowlands to take to higher ground, and returning when the rains end and standing water disappears. Rhinos frequently visit salt licks. Populations in hilly areas move up and down mountains with no trouble and they are excellent swimmers, so we can assume that Sumatran Rhinos are excellent dispersersif suitable habitat is available. Today, populations are so few in number and so widely spaced, little can be inferred about home range and social organization. The researcher N. van Strien followed tracks of individuals for several kilometers through mountainous terrain. His observations highlighted sapling-twisting behavior in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D44CFF359F69071BA" box="[2192,2313,3266,3299]" country="Indonesia" name="Sumatera Utara" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sumatra</collectingRegion>
. Such marking behavior might serve to delimit the home ranges of adult bulls, but this remains speculation. Sumatran Rhinos in a semi-captive situation in the Danum Valley,
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEB721D4527F28AF656706B" box="[2424,2511,3345,3378]" country="Malaysia" name="Sabah" pageId="5" pageNumber="180">Sabah</collectingRegion>
, may shed new light on home range and social organization for a species about which much is anecdotal and where there is no information based on closely marked or radiocollared individuals. Sumatran Rhinos appear to be solitary except for the mothercalf pairing.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFE8721E4C34FEC4F6047EFA" pageId="6" pageNumber="181" type="conservation">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFE8721E4C34FEC4F6047EFA" blockId="6.[104,1311,269,1177]" lastBlockId="6.[1378,2582,273,1171]" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFE8721E4C34FEC4FE547C25" bold="true" box="[107,461,351,380]" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly from
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFE8721E4E16FE11FD3A7CFA" box="[585,675,394,419]" country="India" name="Assam" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Assam</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E4EEAFE11FD647CFA" box="[693,765,394,419]" name="India" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">India</collectingCountry>
to
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E4F74FE11FC3D7CFA" box="[811,932,394,419]" name="Vietnam" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Vietnam</collectingCountry>
, through
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E486DFE11FB317CFA" box="[1074,1192,394,419]" name="Malaysia" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
, and on Sumatra and Borneo. More widely distributed than the Javan
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFE8721E4F87FE35FBEE7C92" box="[984,1143,430,459]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="6" pageNumber="181" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFE8721E48C6FE35FF007CAB" authorityName="Desmarest" authorityYear="1822" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="6" pageNumber="181" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sondaicus">R. sondaicus</taxonomicName>
), but populations very small and isolated. The mainland Asian subspecies, lasiotus, is probably extinct. No recent surveys have turned up signs or local reports of this subspecies. Of the remaining two subspecies, the western Sumatran Rhino,
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFE8721E48DCFDB3FA8F7F18" authorityName="Fischer" authorityYear="1814" box="[1155,1302,552,577]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="6" pageNumber="181" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sumatrensis">sumatrensis</taxonomicName>
, is the more common. Three disjunct populations exist that seem to be the last strongholds: Taman Negara National Park in Peninsular
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E4F71FDE9FC3D7FD6" box="[814,932,626,655]" name="Malaysia" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
; Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas National Parks, and Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra; and scattered small populations elsewhere totalling not more than 250 individuals. Danum Valley Conservation Area and Tabin Reserve,
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFE8721E4EB7FD73FCA47E5C" box="[744,829,744,773]" country="Malaysia" name="Sabah" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Sabah</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E4F10FD73FC5C7E5C" box="[847,965,744,773]" name="Malaysia" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
, are the last strongholds of the subspecies harrissoni, with less than 50 individuals estimated. It is one of the most threatened large mammals on earth. Until recently, conservationists considered the Sumatran Rhino the most endangered of all five species. Even though the Javan Rhino population in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java, is smaller in total numbers, it has remained stable for decades and poachers have been largely kept at bay. In contrast, Sumatran Rhino populations across the range were crashing due to poaching and habitat loss, declining by about 50% over the past 15 years. The extensive development of oil palm plantations in the heart of the range has converted much valuable rhino habitat and allowed poachers to access formerly remote areas. The most controversial conservation program ofthe last 50 years has centered around Sumatran Rhinos. Zoo biologists argued that many isolated, small Sumatran Rhino populations were doomed because the areas they occupied were slated for conversion to oil palm or pulp and paper production. A better strategy was to bring them into captivity to grow the population, and eventually release offspring into the wild under safer conditions. Results were catastrophic. Of the 40 animals brought into captivity, virtually all died and none bred, an even worse decline than seen in the wild. Successful breeding occurred 20 years later, but only at great cost. Some conservation biologists have argued that captive breeding helped this species go extinct in the wild in many places, with nothing to show for an enormous financial investment (money that would have been better spent on in-situ protection). Protecting remaining populations depends on the effectiveness of Rhino Protection Units to patrol critical habitat and give small populations a chance to rebound. With no more than 275 Sumatran Rhinosleft in the wild and scattered among fragmented populations, there is little time to waste. Other major efforts at semi-captive breeding are underway in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFE8721E4B4CFC8FF8F17E74" box="[1811,1896,788,813]" country="Malaysia" name="Sabah" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Sabah</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFE8721E4B25FC8FF8697E74" box="[1914,2032,788,813]" name="Malaysia" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Malaysia</collectingCountry>
, and in southern Sumatra, yet it seems clear that wild populations breed much faster than captive stock. Greater emphasis on intensive protection in key areas, which has been successful in recovering populations of rhinos elsewhere, should be applied diligently and for an extended period.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFE8721E493BFC2DF88F79D6" pageId="6" pageNumber="181" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFE8721E493BFC2DF88F79D6" blockId="6.[1378,2582,273,1171]" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFE8721E493BFC2DFA677E92" bold="true" box="[1380,1534,950,971]" pageId="6" pageNumber="181">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Ali &amp; Santapau (1959), Andau (1995), Andersen (1961), Ansell (1947), Burgess (1961), Christison (1945), Crosbie (2010), Evans (1904, 1905), Foose (2003, 2004), Foose &amp; van Strien (1997), Groves (1965, 1967a, 1967b, 1971), Hislop (1966), Kawanishi et al. (2003), Khan et al. (2000), Kretzschmar (2010), Kurt (1971), Meijaard (1996), Metcalfe (1961, 1964), von Muggenthaler et al. (2003), O'Brien &amp; Kinnaird (1996), Rabinowitz (1995), Rabinowitz &amp; Saw Tun Khaing (1998), Roth et al. (2006), Siswomartono et al. (1996), van Strien (1986), Wielandt (2002), Zainuddin et al. (2000).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A4CCCFE6BFD957F4F" box="[147,524,496,534]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4CCCFE6BFD957F4F" box="[147,524,496,534]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">White Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4E1BFE74FC4A7F4C" box="[580,979,495,533]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4E1BFE74FC4A7F4C" blockId="2.[99,1280,495,652]" box="[580,979,495,533]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A4E1BFE74FC4A7F4C" box="[580,979,495,533]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4E1BFE74FC4A7F4C" ID-CoL="SQFF" baseAuthorityName="Burchell" baseAuthorityYear="1817" box="[580,979,495,533]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Ceratotherium" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="simum">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4E1BFE74FC4A7F4C" box="[580,979,495,533]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Ceratotherium simum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C3CFDB3FF2B7FD5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C3CFDB3FC5E7F64" blockId="2.[99,1280,495,652]" box="[99,967,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A4C3CFDB3FC5E7F64" box="[99,967,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C3CFDB3FF297F64" bold="true" box="[99,176,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4CE5FDB3FEFC7F64" box="[186,357,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Rhinocéros blanc</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4D26FDB3FE4D7F64" bold="true" box="[377,468,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4D81FDB3FD147F64" box="[478,653,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Breitmaulnashorn</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4EFDFDB3FD647F64" bold="true" box="[674,765,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4F58FDB3FCE67F64" box="[775,895,552,573]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Rinoceronte</vernacularName>
blanco
</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C3CFDD5FF2B7FD5" blockId="2.[99,1280,495,652]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A4C3CFDD5FF2B7FD5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C3CFDD5FEC07F3A" bold="true" box="[99,345,590,611]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4D3CFDD5FF2B7FD5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Square-lipped Rhinoceros; Northern White Rhinoceros (cottoni); Southern White Rhinoceros (simum)</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4E95FD24FC8D7E59" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4E95FD24FC8D7E59" blockId="2.[714,1301,703,1122]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4E95FD24FCFC7F81" bold="true" box="[714,869,703,728]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4FD8FD24FC967E59" ID-CoL="4S84W" authority="Burchell, 1817" authorityName="Burchell" authorityYear="1817" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="simus">Rhinoceros simus Burchell, 1817</taxonomicName>
,
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4F40FD78FC4D7E59" box="[799,980,739,768]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="materials_examined">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4F40FD78FC4D7E59" blockId="2.[714,1301,703,1122]" box="[799,980,739,768]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<materialsCitation id="66FE6226FFEC721A4F40FD78FC4D7E59" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785193303" box="[799,980,739,768]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4F40FD78FC497E59" box="[799,976,739,768]" name="South Africa" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">South Africa</collectingCountry>
.
</materialsCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4E95FC9DFB3E7817" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4E95FC9DFB3E7817" blockId="2.[714,1301,703,1122]" lastBlockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
The two recognized White Rhino subspecies have in recent historical times had a strikingly discontinous distribution. However, at some stage in the past the species must have occurred in intervening areas, and the presence offossils in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4804FC51FB417EB2" box="[1115,1240,970,1003]" name="Tanzania" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Tanzania</collectingCountry>
and a subfossil in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4FD0FC6DFC7A794A" box="[911,995,1014,1043]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
support this assumption. A recent paper based on limited genetic data and morphological differences asserts that the “Northern White Rhino,” subspecies cottoni, should be treated as a separate species. However, this paper has been criticized by other rhino geneticists and rhino conservationists, who argue that much is being made of small differences and that the Northern White Rhino should continue to be treated as a subspecies. Genetically there is a bigger difference between the two White Rhino subspecies than between the Black
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4CE6FAB6FECE7817" box="[185,343,1325,1358]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4D33FAB6FDB67817" baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" box="[364,559,1325,1358]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicornis">Diceros bicornis</taxonomicName>
) subspecies. Two subspecies recognized here.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C3AFACEFB9F7BD1" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="distribution">
<caption id="82E938F3FFEC721A4C3AFACEFB9F7BD1" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720732" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720732" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5720732/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" targetBox="[97,690,707,1123]" targetPageId="2">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C3AFACEFE6D782F" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" box="[101,500,1365,1398]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C3AFACEFE6D782F" bold="true" box="[101,500,1365,1398]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C37FA18FB38789D" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4C37FA18FB38789D" authority="Burchell, 1817" authorityName="Burchell" authorityYear="1817" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Ceratotherium" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="simum" subSpecies="simum">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4C37FA18FB38789D" name="Angola" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">C.s.simumBurchell,1817—SEAngola,NENamibia,Botswana,Zimbabwe,SMozambique,Swaziland,SouthAfrica,andperhapsformerlyinextremeSWZambia.</collectingCountry>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C37FA51FE377B63" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4C37FA51FE4078B2" authority="Lydekker, 1908" authorityName="Lydekker" authorityYear="1908" box="[104,473,1482,1515]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Ceratotherium" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="simum" subSpecies="cottoni">C. s. cottoni Lydekker, 1908</taxonomicName>
— historically present in S
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4F0FFA51FC0578B2" box="[848,924,1482,1515]" name="Chad" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Chad</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4FF2FA51FA9678B2" box="[941,1295,1482,1515]" name="Central African Republic" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Central African Republic</collectingCountry>
, S
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4C21FA6EFF417B4B" box="[126,216,1525,1554]" name="Sudan" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Sudan</collectingCountry>
, NE
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4D42FA6EFE2B7B4B" box="[285,434,1525,1554]" name="Democratic Republic of the Congo" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">DR Congo</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4E5FFA6EFDF37B4B" box="[512,618,1525,1554]" name="Uganda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Uganda</collectingCountry>
;last individuals occurred in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A485CFA6EFB0E7B4B" box="[1027,1175,1525,1554]" name="Democratic Republic of the Congo" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">DR Congo</collectingCountry>
, but possibly extinct in the wild.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C3AF9D3FB9F7BD1" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
The “Southern White Rhino,”
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4E47F9D3FD2A7B38" box="[536,691,1608,1633]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Ceratotherium" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="simum" subSpecies="simum">race simum</taxonomicName>
, has been introduced into
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4868F9D3FB177B38" box="[1079,1166,1608,1633]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A48C0F9D3FA967B38" box="[1183,1295,1608,1633]" name="Uganda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Uganda</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4CFBF9FCFE967BD1" box="[164,271,1639,1672]" name="Zambia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Zambia</collectingCountry>
. Especially vague range map for conservation reasons.
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C3AF914FC1675F6" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="description">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C3AF914FC1675F6" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C3AF914FEFC7BE9" bold="true" box="[101,357,1679,1712]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 340-420 cm, tail 50-70 cm, shoulder height 150-180 cm; weight
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEC721A4D1AF92DFE2D7B8E" box="[325,436,1718,1751]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="2.3" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" unit="kg" value="2300.0">2300 kg</quantity>
, but ranges from
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEC721A4EE9F92DFCB87B8E" box="[694,801,1718,1751]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="1.35" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" unit="kg" value="1350.0">1350 kg</quantity>
to
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEC721A4F0DF92DFC587B8E" box="[850,961,1718,1751]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="kg" metricValue="3.5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" unit="kg" value="3500.0">3500 kg</quantity>
, with males heavier and larger than females. The White Rhino is the largest of the five species and size dimorphism is greater than in the other four species. The head and body are massive, and a pronounced bump (nuchal hump) on top of its short neck helps support the head. In silhouette, the sacral bump two thirds of the way along the back is much more marked than in the Black Rhino, which tends to have a more curved back profile. The most dramatic features aside from the enormoussize are the large horns and distinct square lip. The anterior horn is normally the larger of the two, and averages
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEC721A48E7F852FA967AB3" box="[1208,1295,1993,2026]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="9.0" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" unit="cm" value="90.0">90 cm</quantity>
; the record length is
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEC721A4DD6F86BFE777548" box="[393,494,2032,2065]" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" unit="cm" value="150.0">150 cm</quantity>
. The horns of females are often longer and thinner than those of males, which tend to be shorter and chunkier. The extremely wide mouth is unlike that of other rhinos and lacks the prehensile tip found in other species. Skin color varies from a brownish wash to gray. Body hair is limited to the tips of the ear and tail. The ear shape also differs from that of a Black Rhino.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C39F72EFA8C74C2" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C39F72EFA8C74C2" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C39F72EFF4C758F" bold="true" box="[102,213,2229,2262]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Habitat.</emphasis>
Both the northern and southern subspecies are grazers, so are restricted to grassland and savanna habitats. They also fare poorly in areas subjected to very cold, frosty winters or in very arid areas. The highest densities occur in savannas where soils are reasonably nutrient rich and rainfall levels are intermediate (around 700-800 mm), such as in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve (2-3 ind/km?) in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEC721A48CAF6CDFF2D74C2" country="South Africa" name="KwaZulu-Natal" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">KwaZulu-Natal</collectingRegion>
. However, densities are generally much lower, in the region of 0-1-0-5 ind/km?*.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C38F63AFBCC77DE" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C38F63AFBCC77DE" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C38F63AFEF7749B" bold="true" box="[103,366,2465,2498]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
In contrast to the African Black Rhino, the White Rhino is strictly a grazer. The specialized mouth parts—a broad flat lower lip and hard pad—are adaptations for a grazing lifestyle and allow the White Rhino to clip grasses close to the ground. The efficiency with which rhinos graze creates what ecologists term “grazing lawns,” which are also used by other wild herbivores attracted to the nutritious regrowth and to the open areas where predators are more easily detected.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C37F516FBCA767D" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="breeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C37F516FBCA767D" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C37F516FF7777F7" bold="true" box="[104,238,2701,2734]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Breeding.</emphasis>
Reproductive data are similar to other rhino species. Gestation is 16 months, intercalf interval is 2-3 years on good grazing grounds, and age at first reproduction is about 6-7 years. As with other species, courtship is aggressive and the males pursue females, trying to keep estrous females within their breeding territories.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C38F4B1FA8E76B0" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="activity">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C38F4B1FA8E76B0" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C38F4B1FED67612" bold="true" box="[103,335,2858,2891]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
The large mass of the White Rhino implies that it must devote a considerable amount of time to feeding to meetits metabolic requirements. White Rhinos spend about half the day grazing, interspersed with resting periods (often on breezy ridge tops or under trees) and wallowing in muddy depressions during the hottest hours of the day. White Rhinos drink daily but can go for several days without drinking.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4C36F468F68C7FD1" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C36F468F68C7FD1" blockId="2.[100,1306,1128,3323]" lastBlockId="2.[1370,2577,261,2424]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4C36F468FC8F7149" bold="true" box="[105,790,3059,3088]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
White Rhino females are more social than Black Rhino females. They have been sighted in groups of up to 14 individuals, including calves and subadults. Adult males of both species are solitary. As with the Greater One-horned
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4DCEF3FFFDB671DC" box="[401,559,3172,3205]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4E1CF3FFFCD071DC" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[579,841,3172,3205]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="unicornis">Rhinoceros unicornis</taxonomicName>
), subadult males may cluster, perhaps to avoid being driven off by dominant males and to gain better access to the best grazing areas. Dominant bulls mark their home ranges by daily patrols of their boundaries, spraying urine, depositing dung in latrines, and making prominent scrapes on the ground. In Garamba National Park, animals ranged over several hundred square kilometers. In south-west Kruger the average range of adult males was 9-9 km*and females 22.8 km? The summer wet season range of females was larger, 21-4 km* compared to 11-6 km? for males. In the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, core areas for territorial males averaged only 1-7 km?in prime habitat and the average size of female ranges was lower than in Kruger, at 16-2 km®. Dominant bulls try to retain females in estrus that wander through their territories, so the males compete for the home ranges with the best water and grazing, which are mostlikely to attract females. White Rhinos, unlike the Asian rhinos, are poor swimmers and sometimes drown, which explains why major rivers, such as the
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEC721A4A07FDF4F9547FD1" box="[1624,1741,623,648]" country="Namibia" name="Zambezi" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Zambezi</collectingRegion>
and the Nile, are major dispersal barriers.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4904FD15F59075F5" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="conservation">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4904FD15F59075F5" blockId="2.[1370,2577,261,2424]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4904FD15F92C7FF6" bold="true" box="[1371,1717,654,687]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4A50FD2DF9267F8E" box="[1551,1727,694,727]" name="South Africa" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">South Africa</collectingCountry>
and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4B56FD2DF80D7F8E" box="[1801,1940,694,727]" name="Swaziland" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Swaziland</collectingCountry>
. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The recovery of the Southern White Rhino is widely hailed as the most successful example of international wildlife conservation. By 1885, the number of Southern White Rhinos in what became their last stronghold, the Umfolozi Reserve in what is now part of Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve,
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEC721A4BAEFCC0F7597E2D" box="[2033,2240,859,884]" country="South Africa" name="KwaZulu-Natal" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">KwaZulu-Natal</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4491FCC0F6E57E2D" box="[2254,2428,859,884]" name="South Africa" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">South Africa</collectingCountry>
, had been reduced to around 20-50. Today, more than 20,000 rhinos exist in the wild in more than 430 populations. About 93% ofall free-ranging animals are in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4543FC3AF6547E9B" box="[2332,2509,929,962]" name="South Africa" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">South Africa</collectingCountry>
, but over 1000 now occur in the wild outside that country with significant populations in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4903FC63FA4D7948" box="[1372,1492,1016,1041]" name="Namibia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Namibia</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A49BBFC63F9EC7948" box="[1508,1653,1016,1041]" name="Zimbabwe" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Zimbabwe</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4A9DFC63F8807948" box="[1730,1817,1016,1041]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
, growing populations in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A442AFC63F7617948" box="[2165,2296,1016,1041]" name="Botswana" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Botswana</collectingCountry>
and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4561FC63F6507948" box="[2366,2505,1016,1041]" name="Swaziland" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Swaziland</collectingCountry>
, and small numbers in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4A06FB80F9517961" box="[1625,1736,1051,1080]" name="Uganda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Uganda</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4A86FB80F8087961" box="[1753,1937,1051,1080]" name="Mozambique" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Mozambique</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4BBFFB80F7D37961" box="[2016,2122,1051,1080]" name="Zambia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Zambia</collectingCountry>
. The populations introduced in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4902FBA5FA2A7906" box="[1373,1459,1086,1119]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A499BFBA5F9AA7906" box="[1476,1587,1086,1119]" name="Uganda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Uganda</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4ADAFBA5F9777906" box="[1669,1774,1086,1119]" name="Zambia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Zambia</collectingCountry>
, are north of the Zambezi River and outside the historic range of the species. This remarkable effort shows that even very large, slow-reproducing mammals can recover relatively quickly if provided strict protection, enough space, good forage conditions, and active biological management where surplus animals have been translocated to set up new populations. Southern White Rhinos can be bought and sold, and since 1968 there has also been limited sport hunting. This has helped create economic incentivesfor the private sector and more recently for local communities to conserve White Rhinos, and has generated much-needed revenue to help fund their conservation. The successful translocation programs for the Southern White Rhino have inspired similar efforts with the Greater One-horned Rhino in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A452BFA3BF6517898" box="[2420,2504,1440,1473]" name="Nepal" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Nepal</collectingCountry>
, and translocations are planned for
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFEC721A4B4CFA50F8F778B1" box="[1811,1902,1483,1512]" country="India" name="Assam" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Assam</collectingRegion>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4BDFFA50F85278B1" box="[1920,1995,1483,1512]" name="India" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">India</collectingCountry>
. The Northern White Rhino is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and presents the opposite conservation story. Since 1984, the only confirmed surviving population was in Garamba National Park,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A49EDF9A6F9D37B07" box="[1458,1610,1597,1630]" name="Democratic Republic of the Congo" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">DR Congo</collectingCountry>
, where a similarly dedicated group of conservationists and wildlife officials struggled valiantly to recover this population. By then, the number had been reduced to only 15, but under protection the number increased to 30 by 1992. Civil wars and unrest resulted in poaching balancing out births, and by April 2003 there were still 30. However, heavy poaching by large, well-armed gangs of Arabian horsemen from
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A49A6F899F9C97A7A" box="[1529,1616,1794,1827]" name="Sudan" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Sudan</collectingCountry>
had reduced the number to only four by August 2005. Since then another carcass was found and systematic efforts to find any remaining individuals or their spoor have been unsuccessful. This population was declared probably extinct in 2009. Thelast four potential breeding individuals in captivity have been moved from Dvur Kralove Zoo in the
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4A9FF804F8027A99" box="[1728,1947,1951,1984]" name="Czech Republic" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Czech Republic</collectingCountry>
to a more wild setting in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4555F804F6C67A99" box="[2314,2399,1951,1984]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
in the hope that this will stimulate successful breeding. Given the low founder genome equivalent of these “pure” Northern White Rhinos (which are interrelated), conservation biologists have recommended intercrossing these animals with Southern White Rhinos. The hope now lies in conserving as many adaptive Northern White Rhino genesas possible, and eventually, if this is successful, reintroducing animals with these genes into the species’ former range, or, failing that, into suitable secure areas nearits former range.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4900F720F7E1742B" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4900F720F7E1742B" blockId="2.[1370,2577,261,2424]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4900F720FA60758D" bold="true" box="[1375,1529,2235,2260]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Alexander &amp; Player (1965), Anonymous (1965, 1970), Allbrook et al. (1958), Buys (2000), Cave (1963, 1969), Cooke (1950), Foster (1967), Groves et al. (2010), Guggisberg (1966), Heinichen (1969), Hillman-Smith (1998), Hooijer (1959), Jordaan (2010), Owen-Smith, N. (1971, 1973, 1975), Owen-Smith, R.N. (1988), Pitman (1955), Player, |. (1967), Player, |. &amp; Feely (1960), Player, R.I.C. (1972), Reynolds (1960), Schomber (1963), Vigne &amp; Martin (2006), Waldram et al. (2008), White et al. (2007).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A493EF518FA1877F4" box="[1377,1409,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="multiple">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A493EF518FA1877F4" blockId="2.[1375,2223,2691,2815]" box="[1377,1409,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A493EF518FA1877F4" box="[1377,1409,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<figureCitation id="4EAD74FEFFEC721A493EF518FA1877F4" box="[1377,1409,2691,2733]" captionStartId="2.[106,138,3422,3443]" captionTargetBox="[12,2751,14,3632]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="1. White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), 2. Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), 3. Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 4. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), 5. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514203" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514203/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">2.</figureCitation>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A49CDF518F96477F4" box="[1426,1789,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A49CDF518F96477F4" blockId="2.[1375,2223,2691,2815]" box="[1426,1789,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A49CDF518F96477F4" box="[1426,1789,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A49CDF518F96477F4" box="[1426,1789,2691,2733]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Black Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4B70F51DF7D677F5" box="[1839,2127,2694,2732]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B70F51DF7D677F5" blockId="2.[1375,2223,2691,2815]" box="[1839,2127,2694,2732]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A4B70F51DF7D677F5" box="[1839,2127,2694,2732]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4B70F51DF7D677F5" ID-CoL="35JVB" baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" box="[1839,2127,2694,2732]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicornis">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4B70F51DF7D677F5" box="[1839,2127,2694,2732]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Diceros bicornis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A493FF525F8D477A2" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="vernacular_names">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A493FF525F734778A" blockId="2.[1375,2223,2691,2815]" box="[1376,2221,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A493FF525F734778A" box="[1376,2221,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A493FF525FA34778A" bold="true" box="[1376,1453,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A49E8F525F9CA778A" box="[1463,1619,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Rhinocéros noir</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4A39F525F95B778A" bold="true" box="[1638,1730,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4A94F525F8E2778A" box="[1739,1915,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Spitzmaulnashorn</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4BCFF525F872778A" bold="true" box="[1936,2027,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4BA9F525F7F4778A" box="[2038,2157,2750,2771]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Rinoceronte</vernacularName>
negro
</heading>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A493FF57DF8D477A2" blockId="2.[1375,2223,2691,2815]" box="[1376,1869,2790,2811]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFEC721A493FF57DF8D477A2" box="[1376,1869,2790,2811]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A493FF57DF9CF77A2" bold="true" box="[1376,1622,2790,2811]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFEC721A4A3FF57DF8D477A2" box="[1632,1869,2790,2811]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Hook-lipped Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
</heading>
</paragraph>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4B99F4B0F7897636" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B99F4B0F7897636" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4B99F4B0F7F87611" bold="true" box="[1990,2145,2859,2888]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4427F4B0F7927636" ID-CoL="5KW6H" authority="Linnaeus, 1758" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="bicornis">Rhinoceros bicornis Linnaeus, 1758</taxonomicName>
,
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4444F4C9F7497636" box="[2075,2256,2898,2927]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="materials_examined">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4444F4C9F7497636" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" box="[2075,2256,2898,2927]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<materialsCitation id="66FE6226FFEC721A4444F4C9F7497636" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785193304" box="[2075,2256,2898,2927]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4444F4C9F7557636" box="[2075,2252,2898,2927]" name="South Africa" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">South Africa</collectingCountry>
.
</materialsCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721A4B98F4E1F6D676CE" box="[1991,2383,2938,2967]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B98F4E1F6D676CE" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" box="[1991,2383,2938,2967]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Four subspecies recognized.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEC721B4B98F406FC347C21" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="178" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" type="distribution">
<caption id="82E938F3FFEC721B4B98F406FC347C21" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720736" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720736" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5720736/files/figure.png" inLine="true" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="178" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" targetBox="[1374,1967,2867,3282]" targetPageId="2">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B98F406F6CF76E7" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" box="[1991,2390,2973,3006]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEC721A4B98F406F6CF76E7" bold="true" box="[1991,2390,2973,3006]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Subspecies and Distribution.</emphasis>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B99F453F7537154" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4B99F453F7537154" authority="Linnaeus, 1758" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="bicornis" subSpecies="bicornis">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4B99F453F7537154" name="Namibia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">D.b.bicornisLinnaeus,1758—Namibia,W&amp;SESouthAfrica.</collectingCountry>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B98F38CF67E71DB" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4B98F38CF67E71DB" authority="Zukowsky, 1949" authorityName="Zukowsky" authorityYear="1949" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="bicornis" subSpecies="longipes">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4B98F38CF67E71DB" name="Nigeria" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">D.b.longipesZukowsky,1949—historicallyinNigeria,Cameroon,Chad,Sudan,andCentralAfricanRepublic(couldbeextinct).</collectingCountry>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4B98F30AF70371A0" blockId="2.[1990,2578,2859,3281]" lastBlockId="2.[1377,2202,3288,3321]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEC721A4B98F30AF6E471F3" authority="Zukowsky, 1965" authorityName="Zukowsky" authorityYear="1965" box="[1991,2429,3217,3242]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="bicornis" subSpecies="michaeli">D. b. michaeli Zukowsky, 1965</taxonomicName>
—
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A45EBF30AF59271F3" box="[2484,2571,3217,3242]" name="Kenya" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Kenya</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4B97F32FF7AF7188" box="[1992,2102,3252,3281]" name="Rwanda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Rwanda</collectingCountry>
(could be extinct by now), and N
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A493EF343FA7871A0" box="[1377,1505,3288,3321]" name="Tanzania" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Tanzania</collectingCountry>
; historically also in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4AABF343F8D471A0" box="[1780,1869,3288,3321]" name="Sudan" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Sudan</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4B01F343F84E71A0" box="[1886,2007,3288,3321]" name="Ethiopia" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Ethiopia</collectingCountry>
, and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEC721A4479F343F70F71A0" box="[2086,2198,3288,3321]" name="Uganda" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">Uganda</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
<caption id="82E938F3FFEC721A4C35F2C5F8617028" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514203" ID-Zenodo-Dep="6514203" box="[106,2040,3420,3448]" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514203/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="177" startId="2.[106,138,3422,3443]" targetBox="[12,2751,14,3632]" targetPageId="1">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEC721A4C35F2C5F8617028" blockId="2.[106,2040,3420,3448]" box="[106,2040,3420,3448]" pageId="2" pageNumber="177">
On following pages 3 Greater One-horned Rhmoceros (
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unıcomıs) 4 Javan Rhrnooeros (Flhmoceros sondarcusl 5 Sumatran Rhmoceros IDıceromınus sumatrenslsl
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4C9BFE8AFC347C21" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFED721B4C9BFE8AFDCC7C73" authority="Drummond, 1876" authorityName="Drummond" authorityYear="1876" box="[196,597,273,298]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Diceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" phylum="Chordata" rank="subSpecies" species="bicornis" subSpecies="minor">D. b. minor Drummond, 1876</taxonomicName>
— C
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,
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,
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,
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,
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, and
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(possibly extinct), to N and CE
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. Especially vague range map for conservation reasons.
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4C9BFEE4FCBD7E2F" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="description">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4C9BFEE4FCBD7E2F" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4C9BFEE4FE5C7CF9" bold="true" box="[196,453,383,416]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 300-380 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 140-170 cm; weight 800-1300 kg. The Black Rhino is the third largest among living rhinoceros species. Adult males and females are similar in size; there is little dimorphism. Black Rhinos have two horns; the anterior horn can reach
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in some individuals. The posterior horn is usually much smaller, 2-55 cm, but in some individuals, even the smaller posterior horn is longer than the average horn of any of the Asian species. The base of the Black Rhino’s horn is rounded, unlike the White Rhinoceros’s (Ceratotheritum stmum), which is squarer in shape. Like the Greater One-horned (
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), Javan (
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), and Sumatran (
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFED721B4F05FD26FB037F83" baseAuthorityName="G.Fischer" baseAuthorityYear="1814" box="[858,1178,701,730]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Dicerorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="sumatrensis">Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</taxonomicName>
) Rhinoceroses, the Black Rhino has a prehensile upper lip that aids in grasping foliage from shrubs. It has a more hollow back in silhouette than the White Rhino, and its ears are more rounded and trumpet-shaped, with the tip in the center of the ear pointing upwards (the White Rhino’s ear tip points sideways).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4C9CFCE5FB687B4D" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4C9CFCE5FB687B4D" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4C9CFCE5FEA87EC6" bold="true" box="[195,305,894,927]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Habitat.</emphasis>
Black Rhinos can be found in many habitats in Africa. They occur primarily in mesic wooded savanna, but can be found in wetter montane forest in
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, wetter dune forest in eastern
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, and semi-desert in
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,
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. However, they are not found in rainforests, perhaps in part because of their inability to thermoregulate in hot, humid conditions and the paucity of food in the subcanopy of such forests. Historically, the species had a wider habitat range than the White Rhino, occurring throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. The species seems almost preadapted to disperse or to recolonize lost range, because it can feed in a variety of habitats and can survive up to five days without drinking. Rhino densities and carrying capacity have been shown to vary widely overits range. Carrying capacity is particularly dependent on the amount of suitable food. Densities can vary widely, from 0-01 ind/km? in poorly vegetated desert plains to peak levels of around 1-5 ind/km?. The carrying capacity in most areas is in the range of 0-1-0-4 ind/km?®. Savannas are dynamic, and changes in woody vegetation result in fluctuations in the carrying capacity of an area. Competition from other browsers can affect the Black Rhino’s use of habitat. The three Asian species are good swimmers and are never found far from water, but Black Rhinos are poor swimmers. They and White Rhinos can drownif they lose their footing.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4C9EF981FA88754A" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4C9EF981FA88754A" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4C9EF981FE5D7B62" bold="true" box="[193,452,1562,1595]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
This large herbivore eats more than 200 species of browse plants in its wide range of habitats. However, rhinos are highly selective, and specific size classes of a limited number of species make up the bulk of their diet. Of particular interest, they favor plants from genera such as
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, which are highly toxic to other herbivorous mammals. One ofthe favorite browse plants, a dietary staple in north-western
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, is the endemic E. damariana, a plant that burns the skin of humans. The rhino detoxifies the noxious compoundsin its large cecum. Another
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africana, is the species contributing the most to the Black Rhino’s woody diet in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve,
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. Black Rhinos also particularly like small Acacia spp., especially plants less than
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in height. As these plants grow taller, habitat suitability declines. Black Rhinos also ingest fruit, and like the three Asian species, can be important seed dispersers in some parts of their range for certain fleshy-fruited plants. They also eat some herbaceous plants, especially legumes.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4C9FF782FB3D7760" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="breeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4C9FF782FB3D7760" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4C9FF782FEDF7563" bold="true" box="[192,326,2073,2106]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Breeding.</emphasis>
This species is essentially solitary. Males and females aggregate solely for breeding. Courtship,as in other rhino species,is quite violent. Mating can occur in any time of the year, and as in the Greater One-horned Rhino, shows no seasonal pattern. One exception might be for the south-western subspecies, where births may aggregate in the end of the rainy season when forage is most abundant. Reproductive data are similar to other species: gestation around 15-16 months, intercalf interval of 2-4 years (often depending on range conditions and population density relative to an area’s carrying capacity), and age atfirst reproduction around seven years. Conception rates improve with increases in rainfall. As in other species of rhinos, weaning takes place at around two years of age. Calves generally leave their mothers at around 3-5 years of age, but a female calf may remain with its mother after a new calf is born. Predation by Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and Lions (Panthera leo) on young calves occasionally occurs, and perhaps the oldersister’s remaining with the mother provides added defence against predators, although this has yetto be fully investigated.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4CE2F5A4FAA1778E" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="activity">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4CE2F5A4FAA1778E" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4CE2F5A4FE3D7739" bold="true" box="[189,420,2623,2656]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
Black Rhinos feed in the morning and evening hours. During the hottest part of the day, they remain largely inactive, sleeping, resting, and, where available, wallowing in mud. Most observations of rhinos drinking at waterholes in daylight have been past midday and into the late afternoon. Peak times for drinking are at night.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4CE0F57AFAF27106" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4CE0F57AFAF27106" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4CE0F57AFCEF77A7" bold="true" box="[191,886,2785,2814]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
Black Rhinos are essentially solitary other than when breeding or occasionally when foraging. Studies of social organization reveal a range of behaviors relating to their use of space, from near-territorial to overlapping home ranges. As with other large herbivores, defending a widely distributed food source, such as browse,is difficult and may happen more where food resources are limited and widely spaced, and where females congregate. Differences in forage availability greatly influence home range size. Home ranges can be as large as
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? or much smaller, on the order of home ranges of the Greater One-horned Rhinos (2-3 km?) where good quality browse and water are especially plentiful. Home ranges are
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? in Addo Elephant National Park,
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, and
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? in the arid parts of
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.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B4CE1F3FDF632742E" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="conservation">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B4CE1F3FDF632742E" blockId="3.[188,1399,270,3450]" lastBlockId="3.[1462,2673,268,2819]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4CE1F3FDFDB871DE" bold="true" box="[190,545,3174,3207]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red Last, but the West African subspecies, longipes, was considered possibly extinct, minor and michael: are classified as Criticially Endangered, and
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is classified as Vulnerable. The subspecies minor is the most numerous of the three remaining subspecies,
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is almost as numerous as minor and has its stronghold in the arid lands of
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, and populations have been reestablished in western and southeastern
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.
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remains the stronghold of the East African subspecies michaeli, with increasing numbers in northern
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and an out-of-range population in
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(which is being used to restock its former range). Numbers of these last three subspecies have been increasing.The Black Rhino has seen the most drastic decline of all rhino species because of relentless poaching and habitat loss. Before 1960, it was the most numerous of the five extant species and had the largest range. There may once have been as many as 850,000 Black Rhinos distributed across much of sub-Saharan and western Africa. Populations plummeted from about
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1960 to around
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1970 and to just under 15,000 only a decade later. The nadir forthis species occurred in the 1980s, when the total population may have dipped below 2400. Today, the speciesis largely restricted to parks and reserves where the rhinos can be better protected. Most of these areas are fenced. Some are small (less than 50,000 ha); others are very large (such as Greater Kruger National Park). Most of the unfenced areas where the rhinos occur are Intensive Protection Zones (IPZs), which were created to give them a higher level of protection. As with the White Rhino, most Black Rhino populations today have been created by translocating surplus animals from long-established populations and biologically managing populations for growth. Four range states,
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,
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,
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, and
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conserve the bulk of Africa’s Black (95-7%) and White (98-:8%) Rhinos. Small but increasing numbers of Black Rhinos are found in
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and
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. Black Rhinos have also been reintroduced into
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and
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. By the start of 2008 the total population had reached 4200 individuals, and the current number may now be in the region of 4800. The decline in Black Rhino populations is largely a result of poaching to obtain the horn, long prized for dagger handles in
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and in other nations of the Persian Gulf region. Islamic leaders have declared that rhino horn should not be used for dagger handles, and this has helped to curb this dangerous consumption. The use of rhino horn in traditional Chinese medicine (predominantly as a fever reducer and not as an aphrodisiac) has also caused much poaching. Reports of new medical uses for rhino horn in
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and increasing prices being paid for horn are a major cause for concern. Poaching of rhinos in Africa has been increasing in recent years and the growing involvement of organized crime syndicates is of great concern. In areas with both species, the Black Rhino tends to suffer lower levels of poaching, as the White Rhino spends more time in more open areas and is easier to find. As densities have built up in many populations in the major range states, surplus animals have become available for translocation.
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has successfully pioneered communal and private conservancies that look after rhinos on behalf ofthe state. Private custodians have also played an important role in
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and
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. In
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, the private sector is playing an increasing role, although in that country many of the Black Rhinos are privately owned and can be bought and sold. In
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and
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, very limited sport hunting of a few specific individual surplus male Black Rhinos is enhancing the likelihood of meeting genetic and demographic goals (e.g. by removing a behaviorally dominant bull thatis infertile) and at the same time generating much needed revenue to help fund conservation efforts. Translocation offers the possibility of establishing populationsin state-run, private, and community-owned reserves. Increased protected areas available for Black Rhinos hold out hope for Black Rhino conservation. Countries, local communities, and individuals can receive substantial income from ecotourism, so the incentive exists to encourage people to protect, monitor, and manage these rare large mammals. In eastern
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, the Black Rhino Range Expansion Project, with partnerships between the state sector and private or community landowners, allows Black Rhino from source populations in state reserves to be used to found populations on land not necessarily traditionally involved in conservation. This strategy has created five new and viable Black Rhino populations on blocks of land capable of holding at least 50 rhinos, and has increased the land available to Black Rhinos in
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFED721B49E7F693F91D7470" box="[1464,1668,2312,2345]" country="South Africa" name="KwaZulu-Natal" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">KwaZulu-Natal</collectingRegion>
by 34%. The conceptis being adopted elsewhere in southern Africa. Rhinos can act as a flagship species because they require large areas, and when they are successfully protected, can be a catalyst for biodiversity conservation.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B49E7F61CF7C07658" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B49E7F61CF7C07658" blockId="3.[1462,2673,268,2819]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B49E7F61CF9C874F9" bold="true" box="[1464,1617,2439,2464]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Anderson (1966), Bigalke (1945), Brooks, (1983), Bugh &amp; Harthhoorn (1965), Buk &amp; Knight (2010), But et al. (1990), Cumming &amp; du Toit (1989), Dittrich (1967), Foster (1965), Frame (1980), Freeman &amp; King (1969), Goddard (1967, 1968, 1969, 1970a, 1970b), Goettert et al. (2010), Groves (1967a, 1967b), Hall-Martin (1986), Hall-Martin &amp; Penzhorn (1977), Hall-Martin et al. (1982), Hillman &amp; Martin (1979), Hitchens (1969, 1970, 1978), Hooijer (1969), Hungerford et al. (1967), Jacobi (1957), King (1969), Knight &amp; Kerley (2009), Lacey (1987), Lagrot et al. (2007), Lieverloo et al. (2009), Lindemann (1983), Linklater &amp; Swaisgood (2008), Linklater et al. (2010), Loutit (2010), Loutit et al. (1987), Martin (1985, 1987), Mukinya (1973), Okita-Ouma et al. (2009), Parker et al. (2009), Patton &amp; Jones (2007), Patton et al. (2008), Plotz etal. (2008), Reid et al. (2007), Ryder et al. (1987), Schenkel, &amp; Schenkel-Hulliger (1969), du Toit (1987), du Toit &amp; Anderson (2007), Vigne &amp; Martin (1989), Western &amp; Vigne (1985), Western et al. (2009).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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<figureCitation id="4EAD74FEFFED721B49E8F3FEFA4E71D2" box="[1463,1495,3173,3211]" captionStartId="2.[106,138,3422,3443]" captionTargetBox="[12,2751,14,3632]" captionTargetPageId="1" captionText="1. White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), 2. Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), 3. Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 4. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), 5. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514203" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514203/files/figure.png" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">3.</figureCitation>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B49B7F3FEF70B71D2" blockId="3.[1460,2637,3171,3288]" box="[1512,2194,3173,3211]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<heading id="8D61DF17FFED721B49B7F3FEF70B71D2" box="[1512,2194,3173,3211]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<vernacularName id="58951855FFED721B49B7F3FEF70B71D2" box="[1512,2194,3173,3211]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Greater One-horned Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
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<heading id="8D61DF17FFED721B4499F3FCF5D471D4" box="[2246,2637,3175,3213]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFED721B4499F3FCF5D471D4" ID-CoL="4S853" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[2246,2637,3175,3213]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="unicornis">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4499F3FCF5D471D4" box="[2246,2637,3175,3213]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Rhinoceros unicornis</emphasis>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B49E9F307F8FE7181" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="vernacular_names">
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<heading id="8D61DF17FFED721B49E9F307F76B71E8" box="[1462,2290,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B49E9F307F99A71E8" bold="true" box="[1462,1539,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">French:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFED721B4A53F307F92771E8" box="[1548,1726,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Rhinocéros indien</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4A8CF307F8B771E8" bold="true" box="[1747,1838,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">German:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFED721B4B67F307F85371E8" box="[1848,1994,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Panzernashorn</vernacularName>
/
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B4B80F307F7A371E8" bold="true" box="[2015,2106,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Spanish:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFED721B441BF307F72571E8" box="[2116,2236,3228,3249]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Rinoceronte</vernacularName>
indio
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<heading id="8D61DF17FFED721B49EAF358F8FE7181" box="[1461,1895,3267,3288]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B49EAF358F9327181" bold="true" box="[1461,1707,3267,3288]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Other common names:</emphasis>
<vernacularName id="58951855FFED721B4AE9F358F8FE7181" box="[1718,1895,3267,3288]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Indian Rhinoceros</vernacularName>
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<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B49EBF291F9D6707E" bold="true" box="[1460,1615,3338,3367]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Taxonomy.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFED721B4A04F291F7D8707E" ID-CoL="4S853" authority="Linnaeus, 1758" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[1627,2113,3338,3367]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="unicornis">Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758</taxonomicName>
,
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B440EF291F6FB707E" blockId="3.[1459,2403,3338,3451]" box="[2129,2402,3338,3367]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<materialsCitation id="66FE6226FFED721B440EF291F6FB707E" ID-GBIF-Occurrence="3785193302" box="[2129,2402,3338,3367]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFED721B440EF291F702707E" box="[2129,2203,3338,3367]" name="India" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">India</collectingCountry>
,
<collectingRegion id="1452A699FFED721B44F5F291F69C707E" box="[2218,2309,3338,3367]" country="India" name="Assam" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Assam</collectingRegion>
, Terai.
</materialsCitation>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFED721B49EBF2ABF8877014" box="[1460,1822,3376,3405]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B49EBF2ABF8877014" blockId="3.[1459,2403,3338,3451]" box="[1460,1822,3376,3405]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">This species is monotypic.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
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<caption id="82E938F3FFED721B49EBF2C8F8C0702D" ID-DOI="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720738" ID-Zenodo-Dep="5720738" box="[1460,1881,3411,3444]" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/5720738/files/figure.png" inLine="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="178" targetBox="[104,698,289,705]" targetPageId="4">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFED721B49EBF2C8F8C0702D" blockId="3.[1459,2403,3338,3451]" box="[1460,1881,3411,3444]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFED721B49EBF2C8F9FD702D" bold="true" box="[1460,1636,3411,3444]" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Distribution.</emphasis>
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFED721B4A30F2C8F958702D" box="[1647,1729,3411,3444]" name="Nepal" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">Nepal</collectingCountry>
and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFED721B4B54F2C8F8CC702D" box="[1803,1877,3411,3444]" name="India" pageId="3" pageNumber="178">India</collectingCountry>
.
</paragraph>
</caption>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4E8DFE81FD3C7863" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="description">
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<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4E8DFE81FC717C62" bold="true" box="[722,1000,282,315]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Descriptive notes.</emphasis>
Head-body 335-346 cm, tail
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C4FDBFEDDFC437C3A" box="[900,986,326,355]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="6.6" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="cm" value="66.0">66 cm</quantity>
, shoulder height
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C4883FEDDFCA57CD2" metricMagnitude="0" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.875" metricValueMax="2.0" metricValueMin="1.75" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="cm" value="187.5" valueMax="200.0" valueMin="175.0">175— 200 cm</quantity>
; weight of adult males ¢.
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; females less. Few data exist on body mass of wild individuals. Males born in zoos are often more than
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taller at the shoulder and considerably larger in mass than females. Like other perissodactyls, wild adult males and females show near monomorphism. Reduced size dimorphism in free-ranging animals may be explained by greater stress on males, and poor nutrition during the long non-breeding interval, when young adults are harassed by dominant males and excluded from prime grazing areas. Adult males develop longer mandibular incisors (tusks) and greater neck musculature than females. The lower outer incisors are 4-5 cm long, more than
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C48EDFCD2FB6C7E3B" box="[1202,1269,841,866]" metricMagnitude="-2" metricUnit="m" metricValue="3.0" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="cm" value="3.0">3 cm</quantity>
at the base (females) and longer in males (if entire, 5:1.8-9 cm) or often broken. Long incisors (rather than horns), powerful neck and shoulder muscles, and extensive neck and shoulder skin folds figure prominently in fights and displays between breedingage males. The incisors are formidable offensive and defensive weapons, and are used rather than the horn in combat. Horn length averages
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in adult males and
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C4897FB9DFA80797E" box="[1224,1305,1030,1063]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.4" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="cm" value="24.0">24 cm</quantity>
in adult females, but females often have longer (though slightly narrower) horns than the males that breed with them. Horn wear in adult males is common. This species has two distinct skin folds that drape over the sides of the front and hindlegs. Deep scars on anal folds, extra skin folds known as epidermal knobs, cuts on the ears, and missing tail tips allow for easy recognition of adults. Hair is limited to fringes ofears, eyelashes, and tail tip. Body color is gray and a mosaic-like pattern on the skin is quite noticeable on rump. Pedal scent glands are present.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4C36FADBFBA47B7F" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="biology_ecology">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C4C36FADBFBA47B7F" blockId="4.[102,1308,715,3460]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4C36FADBFF417838" bold="true" box="[105,216,1344,1377]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Habitat.</emphasis>
Greater One-horned Rhinos flourish in what are arguably the world’s tallest grasslands, in protected areas along the main river systems in the lowlands of the Himalayas. The rhinos generally avoid upland Shorea robusta forest, a dominant forest type, except during monsoon inundations, when these forests serve as temporary refugia. Oxbow lakes and other water features are important for wallowing and feeding on aquatic plants; this species is rarely found more than
<quantity id="116EC59EFFEA721C4F0CF992FC0F7B7F" box="[851,918,1545,1574]" metricMagnitude="3" metricUnit="m" metricValue="2.0" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" unit="km" value="2.0">2 km</quantity>
from water.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4C36F9B6FEAE74F7" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="food_feeding">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C4C36F9B6FEAE74F7" blockId="4.[102,1308,715,3460]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4C36F9B6FEEB7B17" bold="true" box="[105,370,1581,1614]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Food and Feeding.</emphasis>
Greater One-horned Rhinos are primarily grazers, with the grass Saccharum spontaneum comprising a major part of the diet in all months of the year. During the winter months, rhinos browse much more frequently, as determined by fecal analysis and direct observation. In winter, scrub vegetation that is often found along the buffer zones on the edge of parks holds a particular attraction for the animals. They feed heavily on several browse species prevalent there, including Callicarpa macrophylla and Cassia tora. Even the stick-tight fruits and stems of the weedy Xanthium stromarium, an introduced weed normally dispersed on animal fur, are sought out by the rhino. Croplands attract rhinos and all of the other ungulates, and require nightly vigilance by farmers to scare animals away. Rhinos are partial to rice, corn, and wheat at ripening. They seek out and devour hot chilli plants, but feed only sparingly on the mustard crop. Most of their damage to crops occurs within a kilometer from park boundaries. Greater One-horned Rhinos ingested the fruits of at least 23 species of herbaceous and woody plants. Seeds manured into grassland latrines used by the rhinos yielded distinct assemblages of dicotyledonous plants. Trewia nudiflora, the most common riverine forest tree in Chitwan, and C. tora, an herb, accounted for most of the herbaceous cover. Although unattractive to arboreal and volant frugivores (monkeys, bats, and birds), Trewia fruit is an important food source for the rhino during the monsoon. The rhino plays an important role in dispersal and recruitment of woody species in riverine grasslands. Greater One-horned Rhinos have other profound effects on their landscape—they exert strong selective pressure on forest structure and canopy composition by inhibiting vertical growth of saplings, by frequent browsing and trampling.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4C37F62FFBAC7199" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="breeding">
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<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4C37F62FFF77748C" bold="true" box="[104,238,2484,2517]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Breeding.</emphasis>
Males form dominance hierarchies. An alpha male’s tenure is short in comparison with his life span. The long mean interbirth interval (46 months), long gestation (16 months), and the presence of a small number of breeding age females in a population indicate that breeding opportunities are probably few for individual males. Limited chances for copulation probably heighten aggressive behavior when a female cycles into estrus. Non-breeding males seldom use prime grazing areas dominated by the grass S. spontaneum and occupied by dominant males. Dominant males attack young adult males if they remain in areas where breeding females concentrate. In contrast, females may occupy such areas even as subadults, and continue to occupy the maternal home range as adults. During fights to determine dominance, the males slash and gouge one another with the razor-sharp lower outer incisors, rather than relying on the horn. Three dominant males in Royal Chitwan National Park maintained their status with broken horns but intact incisors. No distinct season of parturition was detected based on births of 53 calves born during an intensive study conducted between 1984 and
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which all breeding age females were photographed and monitored. Age at first reproduction for two known-age females was between 7-0 and 7-5 years. Interbirth intervals based on 13 females whose calves survived to independence were 45-6 + 1-8 months (range 34-51 months) Predation by Tigers (Panthera tigris) accounted for about 10% of calf mortality in one study where the two species overlapped. All calves killed by tigers were less than eight months old.
</paragraph>
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<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C4C39F35DF6477E3A" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="activity">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C4C39F35DF6477E3A" blockId="4.[102,1308,715,3460]" lastBlockId="4.[1375,2583,283,2797]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C4C39F35DFECA71BE" bold="true" box="[102,339,3270,3303]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Activity patterns.</emphasis>
It is a challenge for very large herbivores in subtropical or tropical habitats to find enough to eat and to stay cool during hot weather. Rhinos forage 47-54% of the 24hour cycle with distinct differences observed between sexes. Females are often pregnant or nursing. Adult males devote time to defending or patrolling areas where females congregate, so spend less time foraging. Rhinos feed both day and night. This species spends less time feeding than the other grazing rhino, the White
<taxonomicName id="119613F8FFEA721C493CFEDCF99B7C3D" box="[1379,1538,327,356]" class="Mammalia" family="Rhinocerotidae" genus="Rhinoceros" kingdom="Animalia" order="Perissodactyla" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" phylum="Chordata" rank="genus">Rhinoceros</taxonomicName>
(
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), perhaps because the grasses that account for the bulk ofits diet are much more abundant. Rhinos graze extensively during the day in the hottest, driest month of the year (April) and use wallows infrequently, counter to what might be predicted based on thermoregulatory behavior of other megaherbivores. Conversely, during hot, humid periods (monsoons), the rhinos spend much of the day in wallows, presumably to avoid heat stress. Several factors probably contribute to increased heat stress during the monsoon. The days are longer then, and thus total solar radiation is greater. Wind speed is also reduced, so that heat loss through evaporative cooling is less. Most importantly, the high humidity reduces the ability of large-bodied herbivores to use evaporative cooling to deal with heat stress. Wallowing behavior, which peaks in the monsoon, is correlated with changes in vapor pressure density, a measure of the ability of air to hold water vapor at different temperatures. Thus, the problem of heat stress, combined with easy access to preferred forage, probably restrict Greater One-horned Rhinos to riverine habitats during the monsoon.
</paragraph>
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<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493DFCF1F78D7ED2" bold="true" box="[1378,2068,874,907]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Movements, Home range and Social organization.</emphasis>
In prime habitat, adult females rarely travel more than
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during a 24hour period in any season. Adult breeding males travelled slightly longer distances during a 24hour period. Their movements were sufficient to allow them to cover most of their core areas of occupancy in a few days. Rarely does this species venture farther than
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from the river’s edge or another source of water. Translocated animals wandered over long distances (sometimes more than
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) before establishing a permanent home range. Home range data for radiocollared individuals revealed that Greater One-horned Rhinos may have the smallest annual and seasonal home ranges of any large herbivore. Annual home ranges of breeding females averaged 3-5 km?*; males’ ranges were only only 4-3 km®. The smallest home ranges were recorded for females during the monsoon, two females occupying core areas of only 22 ha and 28 ha, respectively. Females congregate in areas of excellent grass forage close to river banks. Males are notstrictly territorial, but form dominance hierarchies and attempt to defend areas where females congregate. Subadult males sometimes group together on the fringes of the best grazing areas. Adult males frequently fight, often resulting in serious injury and sometimes death.
</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493DFA44F8A074A7" blockId="4.[1375,2583,283,2797]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493DFA44F9227B59" bold="true" box="[1378,1723,1503,1536]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Status and Conservation.</emphasis>
CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Greater One-horned Rhino was once to be found right across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent,its range taking in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river basins, and extending from
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C4B33F9C2F8477B2F" box="[1900,2014,1625,1654]" name="Pakistan" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
to the Indo-Burmese border, including parts of
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,
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, and
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. It is also possible that it existed in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C45D7F9E7F5927BC4" box="[2440,2571,1660,1693]" name="Myanmar" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Myanmar</collectingCountry>
, southern
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and Indochina, though this is unconfirmed. Common in north-western
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and
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C4A6AF950F93E7BB5" box="[1589,1703,1739,1772]" name="Pakistan" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Pakistan</collectingCountry>
up to about 1600, the species vanished from the region not long after that date. From 1600 to 1900 it suffered a sharp decline in numbers in the rest of its range, coming close to extinction at the start of the 20&quot; century. The number of populations (13) and the total global population of this species (now approaching 2700 individuals) have climbed steadily over the past two decades. Intensive translocation efforts since 1984 and natural dispersal have expanded the western populations from the single source population, Chitwan, in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C4BA9F824F7D27A81" box="[2038,2123,1983,2008]" name="Nepal" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Nepal</collectingCountry>
, to two other reserves in western
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C493EF845FA2A7AA6" box="[1377,1459,2014,2047]" name="Nepal" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Nepal</collectingCountry>
and three in
<collectingCountry id="AE8128EBFFEA721C4A26F845F95D7AA6" box="[1657,1732,2014,2047]" name="India" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">India</collectingCountry>
. Translocations from some of the smaller reserves in
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and Bengal are also underway. Despite these accomplishments, only two populations currently contain more than 100 individuals, Kaziranga, with about 2000 rhinos, and Chitwan, with about 420. In some parts of the range, poaching has been intense. All of the 85 animals translocated to the Babai Valley in Bardia National Park were poached during the ten-year Maoist insurgency that ended in 2008. A small population remains in another part of Bardia and Sukla Phanta. Nevertheless, this species is much better off than the other two Asian species. Its recovery is still in question because populations occupy what could become prime agricultural habitat (floodplains), and the species still faces intense poaching pressure for its body parts. Nevertheless, the increases in Chitwan and Kaziranga and the establishment of new populations provide some of the best evidence that large, slow-breeding mammals can still undergo rapid expansion. This offers hope for the restoration of other endangered large mammals if they enjoy similar efforts at protection.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="9E8C3BF0FFEA721C493EF596F61377B3" pageId="4" pageNumber="179" type="bibRefCitation_list">
<paragraph id="D629687BFFEA721C493EF596F61377B3" blockId="4.[1375,2583,283,2797]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">
<emphasis id="E4E2B469FFEA721C493EF596FA62777F" bold="true" box="[1377,1531,2573,2598]" pageId="4" pageNumber="179">Bibliography.</emphasis>
Amin et al. (2009), Anonymous (1909), Cooch Behar &amp; Maharajah (1908), Dinerstein (1991a, 1991b, 1992, 2003), Dinerstein &amp; Gyawali (1993), Dinerstein &amp; McCracken (1990), Dinerstein &amp; Price (1991), Dinerstein &amp; Wemmer (1988), Dinerstein, Rijal et al. (1999), Dinerstein, Shrestha &amp; Mishra (1990), Foose &amp; van Strien (1997), Gee (1953), Gyawali (1986), IUCN (1994), Laurie (1978, 1982), Laurie et al. (1983), Martin &amp; Vigne (1995), Menon (1996), Olson &amp; Dinerstein (1998), Owen-Smith (1988), Prothero &amp; Schoch (1989), Seidensticker (1976), Syangden et al. (2008), Wikramanayake &amp; Dinerstein (1998), Yonzon (1994).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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Family
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE72184962FE56F8337F49" blockId="0.[1341,1963,461,538]" box="[1341,1962,461,528]" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">(RHINOCEROSES)</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE721848B0FDD5F8D27F9B" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">• Very large mammals with distinct horns, long ears tipped with hair, three toes, small tail, thick skin, and often with distinct skin folds on body.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE721848B0FC16F8EF7EF7" box="[1263,1910,909,942]" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">• Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE721848B0FC23F95F797D" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">• Tropical montane, lowland, and mangrove forests, short grassland, tall alluvial grassland, savanna, woodland, semi-desert, and scrub.</paragraph>
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE721848B0FBB6F8E67913" box="[1263,1919,1069,1098]" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">
•
<figureCitation id="4EAD74FEFFEE7218494BFBB6F8E27913" box="[1300,1915,1069,1098]" captionStartId="0.[2255,2404,2623,2652]" captionTargetBox="[251,2106,2644,3461]" captionTargetPageId="0" figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514201" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/6514201/files/figure.png" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">4 genera, 5 species, at least 9 extant taxa</figureCitation>
.
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<paragraph id="D629687BFFEE721848B0FBCEF8367998" pageId="0" pageNumber="144">• 3 species Critically Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; 1 subspecies Extinct in the Wild; 2 subspecies possibly Extinct and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600.</paragraph>
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<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Tian, Mingyi</mods:namePart>
</mods:name>
<mods:typeOfResource>text</mods:typeOfResource>
<mods:relatedItem type="host">
<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>ZooKeys</mods:title>
</mods:titleInfo>
<mods:part>
<mods:date>2014</mods:date>
<mods:detail type="volume">
<mods:number>448</mods:number>
</mods:detail>
<mods:extent unit="page">
<mods:start>9</mods:start>
<mods:end>26</mods:end>
</mods:extent>
</mods:part>
</mods:relatedItem>
<mods:location>
<mods:url>http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.448.8081</mods:url>
</mods:location>
<mods:classification>journal article</mods:classification>
<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.448.8081</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="Pensoft-Pub">1313-2970-448-9</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ZBK">1DD006FB85C34E34862E98B77B9F1084</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="ZooBank">1DD006FB85C34E34862E98B77B9F1084</mods:identifier>
</mods:mods>
<treatment ID-GBIF-Taxon="152056027" LSID="urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:0E3F9DD5-1FFE-45BB-B896-631C999232F4" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/5E3FEF6ECCD0D97AECBDB43CEADAFCB2" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="12" pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="multiple">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Taxon classification Animalia Polydesmida Paradoxosomatidae</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
<taxonomicName LSID="http://zoobank.org/0E3F9DD5-1FFE-45BB-B896-631C999232F4" class="Diplopoda" family="Paradoxosomatidae" genus="Desmoxytes" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Desmoxytes parvula" order="Polydesmida" pageId="2" pageNumber="11" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="parvula">Desmoxytes parvula</taxonomicName>
<taxonomicNameLabel pageId="2" pageNumber="11">sp. n.</taxonomicNameLabel>
Figs 4, 5, 6
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="holotype">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Holotype.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
♂ (SCAU), China, Guangxi, Hechi City,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Du’an">Du'an</normalizedToken>
County,
<normalizedToken originalValue="Xia’ao">Xia'ao</normalizedToken>
Town, cave I,
<geoCoordinate direction="north" orientation="latitude" precision="1" value="24.2524">24°15.144'N</geoCoordinate>
,
<geoCoordinate direction="east" orientation="longitude" precision="1" value="107.93787">107°56.272'E</geoCoordinate>
, 347 m, 2.V.2013, leg. Tian Mingyi, Liu Weixin, Sun Feifei &amp; Yin Haomin.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="paratype">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Paratype.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">1 ♀ (SCAU), same locality and collecting data as of the holotype.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="name">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Name.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">To emphasize the small size of this species.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="diagnosis">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Diagnosis.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Differs from congeners in the combination of spiniform paraterga, a paramedian pair of subtrapzoidal processes between ♂ coxae 4, the humped ♂ femur 6, and certain details of gonopod structure.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="12" pageId="2" pageNumber="11" type="description">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Description.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">Length ca 18 (♂) or 19 mm (♀), width of pro- and metaterga together with paraterga 0.8 and 1.2 (♂), or 1.0 and 1.4 mm (♀), respectively. Head broadest, 1.3 mm (♂) or 1.5 mm (♀) wide. Coloration of material rather uniformly brownish, antennae and lateral body parts dark brown, venter and a few basal podomeres yellowish, basal parts paraterga pink (Fig. 4). Head densely setose, epicranial suture distinct. Antennae long and slender, reaching back to segment 6 (♂) or 4 (♀) when stretched dorsally, antennomeres 5 and 6 each with a compact apicodorsal group of bacilliform sensilla.</paragraph>
<caption pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
<paragraph pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
Figure 4.
<taxonomicName class="Diplopoda" family="Paradoxosomatidae" genus="Desmoxytes" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Desmoxytes parvula" order="Polydesmida" pageId="2" pageNumber="11" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="parvula">Desmoxytes parvula</taxonomicName>
sp. n., ♂ holotype from
<normalizedToken originalValue="Xia’ao">Xia'ao</normalizedToken>
Town, cave I. A, D anterior part of body, lateral and dorsal views, respectively B, E midbody segments, dorsal and ventral views, respectively C, F posterior part of body, dorsal and ventral views, respectively G cross-section of a midbody segment, frontal view H sternal process between coxae 4 in situ, ventral view I femur 6, lateral view. Scale bars:
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–G">A-G</normalizedToken>
, I = 0.5 mm; H = 0.2 mm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="12" pageId="2" pageNumber="11">
Pro- and metazonae very delicately microalveolate, metaterga finely shagreened and transversely rugulose, surface below paraterga finely shagreened (Fig. 4
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–F">A-F</normalizedToken>
). Collum with three transverse rows of rather evident spines: 5(6)+5(6) anterior, 4+4 intermediate and 4(5)+4(5) posterior, setae often visible, but sometimes obliterated (Fig. 5A); paraterga spiniform, each with 2 denticles laterally, a spine anteriorly at base (Figs 4A, 5A). Metaterga 2-4 with three transverse rows of setigerous tubercles: 4+4 anterior, 4+4 inermediate, 5+5 posterior. Starting from metatergum 5, anterior row gradually showing 1-2 additional tubercles so that following metaterga with transverse rows of 4-6 irregular tuberculations varying in number, but posterior two rows usually regular, each with (3
<normalizedToken originalValue="–5)+(3–">-5)+(3-</normalizedToken>
5) and (5
<normalizedToken originalValue="–8)+(5–">-8)+(5-</normalizedToken>
8) tuberculations (Fig. 4B). Metatergum 19 with five rather regular rows of tuberculations. Paraterga spiniform, each with 2-3 denticles (Fig. 4
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–D">A-D</normalizedToken>
). ♂ paraterga 2-9 subvertical, following paraterga directed dorsolaterally (Fig. 4
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–B">A-B</normalizedToken>
, G), but ♀ paraterga mostly low and short; paraterga 19 directed caudad (Fig. 4C). Ozopores inconspicuous. Transverse sulcus visible on coullum and metaterga 2-18 (Figs 4
<normalizedToken originalValue="B–C">B-C</normalizedToken>
, 5A). Pleurosternal carinae poorly developed on segments 2 and 3 both in ♂ and ♀, absent on the rest (Fig. 4D). Epiproct (Fig. 4C) simple,
<pageBreakToken pageId="3" pageNumber="12" start="start">dorsal</pageBreakToken>
subapical and, especially, lateral pre-apical papillae very distinct, tuberculiform. Hypoproct (Fig. 4F) subtrapeziform, caudal margin very slightly concave, setigerous cones at caudal edge very small, widely separated. Axial line present.
</paragraph>
<caption pageId="3" pageNumber="12">
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">
Figure 5.
<taxonomicName class="Diplopoda" family="Paradoxosomatidae" genus="Desmoxytes" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Desmoxytes parvula" order="Polydesmida" pageId="3" pageNumber="12" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="parvula">Desmoxytes parvula</taxonomicName>
sp. n., ♂ holotype from
<normalizedToken originalValue="Xia’ao">Xia'ao</normalizedToken>
Town, cave I. A Collum B sternal process between coxae 4, ventral view C femur 6, lateral view. Scale bar: 0.5 mm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">Sterna moderately setose, cross-impressions very weak (Fig. 4E). A paramedian pair of subtrapzoidal processes between ♂ coxae 4 (Figs 4H, 5B). Legs 1 short, following ones increasingly longer and slenderer towards telson, ca 2.5 (♂) or 2.0 (♀) times longer than body height. ♂ femur 6 with a very evident, digitiform, distoventral apophysis in distal 1/3 (Figs 4I, 5C).</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">
Gonopods (Fig. 6
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–C">A-C</normalizedToken>
) simple, strongly elongated. Coxite rather short, subcylindrical, poorly setose distodorsally, about 1/3 as long as telopodite. Prefemoral portion about half as long as acropodite, densely setose. Femorite rather long, strongly curved dorsad, slightly enlarged distally, with seminal groove running entirely on the mesal side. Postfemoral part strongly condensed; solenomere short, flagelliform, sheathed by a similarly short solenophore.
</paragraph>
<caption pageId="3" pageNumber="12">
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">
Figure 6.
<taxonomicName class="Diplopoda" family="Paradoxosomatidae" genus="Desmoxytes" higherTaxonomySource="CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Desmoxytes parvula" order="Polydesmida" pageId="3" pageNumber="12" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="parvula">Desmoxytes parvula</taxonomicName>
sp. n., ♂ holotype from
<normalizedToken originalValue="Xia’ao">Xia'ao</normalizedToken>
Town, cave I.
<normalizedToken originalValue="A–C">A-C</normalizedToken>
right gonopod, lateral, dorsal and mesal views, respectively. Scale bar: 0.5 mm.
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="3" pageNumber="12" type="remarks">
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">Remarks.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="3" pageNumber="12">Even though this species has been taken from a cave, it hardly represents a true cavernicole as it is rather strongly pigmented and shows short antennae and legs.</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>