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<mods:title id="893E56C50597FA8B346F51AC180DFF93">Making shelter for enemies: parasitoid-induced shelter-building behaviour in Paraponyx stagnalis</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="14B72342A5410E09847A3CEE1838238C">Kallyadan, Sreejina Sreedharan</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="EB8D2D438ED4529DF382A7BED4601626">M., Nasser</mods:namePart>
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Genus
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FEC2FB61FD52DEC7" ID-CoL="62CWH" authority="Foerster, 1863" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[371,670,1233,1260]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FEC2FB61FE2BDEC7" box="[371,487,1233,1260]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
Foerster, 1863
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(
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FD1CFB61FCF7DEC7" box="[685,827,1233,1260]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Braconidae</taxonomicName>
:
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FCF6FB61FBCCDEC7" box="[839,1024,1233,1260]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Microgastrinae">Microgastrinae</taxonomicName>
)
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<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD16252FF11FAB7FC5BDC50" blockId="3.[160,1156,1287,1728]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">
The largest genus of
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FE25FAB7FDF1DF0B" box="[404,573,1287,1312]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Microgastrinae">Microgastrinae</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FDF8FAB7FD7FDF0B" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[585,691,1287,1312]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FDF8FAB7FD7FDF0B" box="[585,691,1287,1312]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, contains more than 600 known species that can be found worldwide. Traditionally, all braconid species with an open forewing areolet were named
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FE3DFAFDFE3ADF4D" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[396,502,1357,1382]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FE3DFAFDFE3ADF4D" box="[396,502,1357,1382]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. The assemblage of species in the genus
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FC63FAFDFBF0DF4D" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[978,1084,1357,1382]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FC63FAFDFBF0DF4D" box="[978,1084,1357,1382]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is still enormous and diverse. Identifying
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FD9BFADFFD77DFA3" box="[554,699,1391,1416]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="undetermined">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FD9BFADFFD58DFA3" box="[554,660,1391,1416]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
sp.
</taxonomicName>
poses a challenge due to the numerous similarities in their morphological characteristics (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD16252FD70FA22FC37DF80" author="Fernandez-Triana J &amp; Shaw MR &amp; Boudreault C &amp; Beaudin M &amp; Broad GR" box="[705,1019,1426,1451]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" refId="ref5625" refString="Fernandez-Triana J, Shaw MR, Boudreault C, Beaudin M, Broad GR. 2020. Annotated and illustrated world checklist of Microgastrinae parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera, Braconidae). ZooKeys. 920: 1. doi: 10.3897 / zookeys. 920.39128" type="journal volume" year="2020">
Fernandez-Triana
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FC3AFA22FC75DF80" box="[907,953,1426,1451]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">et al</emphasis>
. 2020
</bibRefCitation>
). In terms of both economic value and diversity of species,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FD2EFA05FC89DFE5" box="[671,837,1461,1486]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Microgastrinae">Microgastrinae</taxonomicName>
is by far the most significant group of parasitoids in
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FE1FFA67FDFADFDB" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[430,566,1495,1520]" class="Magnoliopsida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Lepidoptera</taxonomicName>
worldwide (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD16252FD75FA67FCA7DFDB" author="Whitfield JB" box="[708,875,1495,1520]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" pagination="245 - 262" refId="ref6913" refString="Whitfield JB. 1995. Annotated checklist of the Microgastrinae of North America north of Mexico (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). J Kans Entomol Soc. 68 (3): 245 - 262." type="journal article" year="1995">Whitfield 1995</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD16252FCCBFA67FC7DDFDB" author="Whitfield JB &amp; Wharton RA &amp; Marsh PM &amp; Sharkey MJ" box="[890,945,1495,1520]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" pagination="333 - 364" refId="ref6990" refString="Whitfield JB, Wharton RA, Marsh PM, Sharkey MJ. 1997. Subfamily microgastrinae. Manual of the New World genera of the family Braconidae (Hymenoptera). Spec Publ. 1: 333 - 364." type="journal article" year="1997">1997</bibRefCitation>
). With the help of venom and the effects of polydnavirus (PDV) on the host’s immune and endocrine systems, adult female wasps typically oviposit into early-instar host larvae (although a few species have been known to oviposit into host eggs), where the wasp eggs hatch and larval development occurs (as summarised by
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD16252FD1BF9D2FC47DC50" author="Whitfield JB &amp; Austin A &amp; Fernandez-Triana JL" box="[682,907,1634,1659]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" pagination="389 - 406" refId="ref6949" refString="Whitfield JB, Austin A, Fernandez-Triana JL. 2018. Systematics, biology, and evolution of microgastrine parasitoid wasps. Annual Review of Entomology. 63: 389 - 406. doi: 10.1146 / annurev-ento- 020117 - 043405" type="journal article" year="2018">
Whitfield
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FCA6F9D2FC8BDC50" box="[791,839,1634,1659]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">et al</emphasis>
. 2018
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
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The female
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FEF0F935FE67DCB5" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[321,427,1669,1694]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FEF0F935FE67DCB5" box="[321,427,1669,1694]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
lays the eggs within the host larvae (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD16252FCF0F935FC32DCB5" author="Gupta A &amp; Shaw M &amp; Cardinal S &amp; Fernandez-Triana J" box="[833,1022,1669,1694]" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" pagination="29 - 44" refId="ref5987" refString="Gupta A, Shaw M, Cardinal S, Fernandez-Triana J. 2016. A review of unusual species of Cotesia (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae) with the first tergite narrowing at midlength. ZooKeys. 580: 29 - 44. doi: 10.3897 / zookeys. 580.8090" type="journal article" year="2016">
Gupta
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FC3CF935FC70DCB5" box="[909,956,1669,1694]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">et al</emphasis>
. 2016
</bibRefCitation>
). After 6–10 days of parasitisation, the
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD16252FE66F917FD8DDCEB" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[471,577,1703,1728]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="3" pageNumber="661" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD16252FE66F917FD8DDCEB" box="[471,577,1703,1728]" italics="true" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
larvae will develop inside the body of the larval
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FF11FF3EFEE4DA8C" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[160,296,142,167]" class="Magnoliopsida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Lepidoptera</taxonomicName>
until emergence (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FDB1FF3EFD32DA8C" author="Boling JC &amp; Pitre HN" box="[512,766,142,167]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="465 - 470" refId="ref5327" refString="Boling JC, Pitre HN. 1970. Life history of Apanteles marginiventris with descriptions of immature stages. J Kans Entomol Soc. 43 (4): 465 - 470." type="journal article" year="1970">Boling and Pitre 1970</bibRefCitation>
). There are three larval instars in
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FF11FF01FEC6DAE1" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[160,266,177,202]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FF11FF01FEC6DAE1" box="[160,266,177,202]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. The hymenopteriform is the third instar (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD76254FD50FF01FCF1DAE1" box="[737,829,177,202]" captionStart="Figure 5" captionStartId="7.[160,225,1340,1363]" captionTargetBox="[167,1150,157,1303]" captionTargetId="figure-46@7.[163,1153,142,1308]" captionTargetPageId="7" captionText="Figure 5. Biology of Apanteles species. (a) Parasitoid larva near the host (Paraponyx stagnalis) larval remnant. (b) Parasitoid pupa with an emergence hole. (c) Parasitoid cocoon shelter in the rice leaf. (d) Parasitised P. stagnalis larval shelter in grass species Digitaria. (e) Parasitised rice case worm leaf shelter." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219621" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219621/files/figure.png" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Figure 5</figureCitation>
(a)). The pupa belongs to the exarate
<typeStatus id="54E297FDFFD76254FF48FF64FEE1DAC6" box="[249,301,212,237]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">type</typeStatus>
, meaning that its appendages are free and not attached to the body. Shortly after emerging from the host, it develops inside the cocoon (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD76254FCE0FF46FC62DB24" box="[849,942,246,271]" captionStart="Figure 6" captionStartId="8.[160,225,1141,1164]" captionTargetBox="[163,1152,143,1106]" captionTargetId="figure-106@8.[163,1153,142,1109]" captionTargetPageId="8" captionText="Figure 6. Leaf shelter of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Tubular case of late-instar larva. (b,c) Tubular cases of early-instar larvae. (d) Caterpillar making leaf shelter. (e,f) Caterpillars’ bright brownish-orange head protruding from the tubular case. (g) Silk covers the case’s interior, storing a small layer of water." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219623" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219623/files/figure.png" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Figure 6</figureCitation>
(b)) constructed by the mature final-instar larva. They are solitary or gregararious endoparasitoids (koinobionts) of
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FEA3FE8CFE56DB7E" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[274,410,316,341]" class="Magnoliopsida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Lepidoptera</taxonomicName>
larvae (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FE41FE8CFCEBDB7E" author="Shaw MR &amp; Huddleston T" box="[496,807,316,341]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="1 - 126" refId="ref6806" refString="Shaw MR, Huddleston T. 1991. Classification and biology of braconid wasps. Handbk Ident Br Insects. 7 (11): 1 - 126." type="journal article" year="1991">Shaw and Huddleston 1991</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FC82FE8CFC1ADB7E" author="Whitfield JB &amp; Wharton RA &amp; Marsh PM &amp; Sharkey MJ" box="[819,982,316,341]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="333 - 364" refId="ref6990" refString="Whitfield JB, Wharton RA, Marsh PM, Sharkey MJ. 1997. Subfamily microgastrinae. Manual of the New World genera of the family Braconidae (Hymenoptera). Spec Publ. 1: 333 - 364." type="journal article" year="1997">Whitfield 1997</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FC53FE8CFF1BDB5C" author="Whitfield JB &amp; Austin A &amp; Fernandez-Triana JL" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="389 - 406" refId="ref6949" refString="Whitfield JB, Austin A, Fernandez-Triana JL. 2018. Systematics, biology, and evolution of microgastrine parasitoid wasps. Annual Review of Entomology. 63: 389 - 406. doi: 10.1146 / annurev-ento- 020117 - 043405" type="journal article" year="2018">
Whitfield
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FBFFFE8CFBB2DB7E" box="[1102,1150,316,341]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">et al</emphasis>
. 2018
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>

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<mods:title id="5BBB714AC7C6442B46E8D2A5BC6A1C27">Making shelter for enemies: parasitoid-induced shelter-building behaviour in Paraponyx stagnalis</mods:title>
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<mods:namePart id="8E96326AABC72EE076E237EAA6B25E0C">Kallyadan, Sreejina Sreedharan</mods:namePart>
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<mods:namePart id="0F8A90021A01644EB0CBB95C6B585E32">M., Nasser</mods:namePart>
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<mods:title id="17C5BB60ECE43E916F17E1ED0C9C7714">Journal of Natural History</mods:title>
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<mods:date id="16F63E4814DB1C4DE9B60904CC6783E4">2024</mods:date>
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<mods:number id="F240AEE7C64DB93DD805D13B80C337DB">2024-06-24</mods:number>
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<mods:number id="D871E781D2DAB92669A5AAF6061FD3DF">58</mods:number>
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<mods:number id="CB34ED92994D64FED23329BAD603B790">21 - 24</mods:number>
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<mods:url id="87E625478E12166187AC5DC189EB6479">http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2024.2345928</mods:url>
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<mods:identifier id="534CDB8787D78478A90CCE445A836DB9" type="ISSN">1464-5262</mods:identifier>
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<heading id="D0AE9E33FFD36250FEE0FA2DFC1EDF93" box="[337,978,1437,1464]" centered="true" fontSize="11" level="2" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" reason="5">
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD36250FEE0FA2DFD43DF93" box="[337,655,1437,1464]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD36250FEE0FA2DFD43DF93" blockId="1.[337,978,1437,1464]" box="[337,655,1437,1464]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FEE0FA2DFD43DF93" authority="Zeller" authorityName="Zeller" box="[337,655,1437,1464]" class="Insecta" family="Crambidae" genus="Paraponyx" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="stagnalis">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD36250FEE0FA2DFD8EDF93" box="[337,578,1437,1464]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">Paraponyx stagnalis</emphasis>
Zeller
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
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<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD36250FD29FA2DFC1EDF93" box="[664,978,1437,1464]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" type="multiple">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD36250FD29FA2DFC1EDF93" blockId="1.[337,978,1437,1464]" box="[664,978,1437,1464]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">
(
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FD2FFA2DFCF4DF93" authorityName="Linnaeus" authorityYear="1758" box="[670,824,1437,1464]" class="Magnoliopsida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Lepidoptera</taxonomicName>
:
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FCF5FA2DFC00DF93" box="[836,972,1437,1464]" class="Insecta" family="Crambidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Crambidae</taxonomicName>
)
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</heading>
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD36253FF11FA67FBADDEBD" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="660" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" type="discussion">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD36253FF11FA67FBADDEBD" blockId="1.[160,1155,1495,1728]" lastBlockId="2.[160,1156,1010,1728]" lastPageId="2" lastPageNumber="660" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FF11FA67FDE3DFDB" authority="(Zeller, 1852)" baseAuthorityName="Zeller" baseAuthorityYear="1852" box="[160,559,1495,1520]" class="Insecta" family="Crambidae" genus="Paraponyx" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="stagnalis">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD36250FF11FA67FE44DFDB" box="[160,392,1495,1520]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">Paraponyx stagnalis</emphasis>
(Zeller, 1852)
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FDF0FA67FD1EDFDB" box="[577,722,1495,1520]" class="Insecta" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Lepidoptera</taxonomicName>
:
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FD53FA67FC81DFDB" ID-CoL="FG2" box="[738,845,1495,1520]" class="Insecta" family="Pyralidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Pyralidae</taxonomicName>
) (=
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD36250FC35FA67FEDDDC38" authority="(Guenee))" baseAuthorityName="Guenee" class="Insecta" family="Crambidae" genus="Nymphula" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="depunctalis">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD36250FC35FA67FB4FDFDB" box="[900,1155,1495,1520]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">Nymphula depunctalis</emphasis>
(Guenée))
</taxonomicName>
, commonly known as the rice case worm, poses a significant threat to rice plants in
<collectingRegion id="499DE7BDFFD36250FEB9F9ADFE81DC1D" box="[264,333,1565,1590]" country="India" name="Kerala" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">Kerala</collectingRegion>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD36250FEE8F9ADFD71DC1D" author="Santhosh S &amp; Karthikeyan K" box="[345,701,1565,1590]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" pagination="160 - 165" refId="ref6692" refString="Santhosh S, Karthikeyan K. 2017. A new species of Tetrastichus Haliday (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) parasitizing the rice case worm, Parapoynx stagnalis (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) from India. Orient Insects. 51 (2): 160 - 165. doi: 10.1080 / 00305316.2016.1265601." type="journal article" year="2017">Santhosh and Karthikeyan 2017</bibRefCitation>
). These larvae are particularly damaging during the vegetative stage of wetland rice in Asia, defoliating rice plants (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD36250FBB3F98FFB93DC73" box="[1026,1119,1599,1624]" captionStart="Figure 6" captionStartId="8.[160,225,1141,1164]" captionTargetBox="[163,1152,143,1106]" captionTargetId="figure-106@8.[163,1153,142,1109]" captionTargetPageId="8" captionText="Figure 6. Leaf shelter of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Tubular case of late-instar larva. (b,c) Tubular cases of early-instar larvae. (d) Caterpillar making leaf shelter. (e,f) Caterpillars’ bright brownish-orange head protruding from the tubular case. (g) Silk covers the case’s interior, storing a small layer of water." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219623" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219623/files/figure.png" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">Figure 6</figureCitation>
(a)) (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD36250FF17F9D2FE4FDC50" author="Litsinger JA &amp; Chantaraprapha N &amp; Barrion AT &amp; Bandong JP" box="[166,387,1634,1659]" pageId="1" pageNumber="659" pagination="261 - 268" refId="ref6390" refString="Litsinger JA, Chantaraprapha N, Barrion AT, Bandong JP. 1994. Natural enemies of the rice caseworm Nymphula depunctalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Int J Trop Insect Sci. 15 (3): 261 - 268. doi: 10.1017 / S 1742758400017550." type="journal article" year="1994">
Litsinger
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD36250FEBEF9D2FEF3DC50" box="[271,319,1634,1659]" italics="true" pageId="1" pageNumber="659">et al</emphasis>
. 1994
</bibRefCitation>
). The destructive activity of the larvae of case worms stops after the maximum tillering stage. The damage caused by them is identified by their distinctive leaf cases and the removal of green tissue. These larvae scrape the leaf tissues, leaving only the papery upper epidermis (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FE46FC42FD9BDE20" box="[503,599,1010,1035]" captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="4.[160,225,1407,1430]" captionTargetBox="[263,1052,143,1372]" captionTargetId="figure-3@4.[261,1055,142,1375]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Figure 3. A pictorial representation of the Paraponyx stagnalis life cycle.(a) Eggs are laid on the abaxial side of the leaf. (b) Newly emerged first-instar larvae are feeding on the leaf tissue. (c,d) Larvae making the leaf shelter. (e) Folded leaf case in the rice leaf. (f) Tubular cases fall off the rice plant, floating on the water. (g) The rice case worm uses its legs to climb up adjacent plants. (h) Caterpillars feed on leaves. (i) Pupae adhere to the culms of rice paddy saplings via the lateral border of the cases, slightly above the water surface." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219617" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219617/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figure 3</figureCitation>
). To differentiate case worm damage from that caused by other pests, one needs to look for the ladder-like pattern on infested leaf tissue, which results from the larval head’s back-and-forth motion during feeding. Infested plants tend to show stunted growth, as several larvae attack the same rice plant, cutting off most leaf tips to construct their larval cases and scraping the remaining leaves (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD06253FC53FBCDFB99DEBD" author="Dale D" box="[994,1109,1149,1174]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" pagination="438 - 442" refId="ref5472" refString="Dale D. 1994. Insect pests of the rice plant - their biology and ecology, and Heinrichs EA, editor. Biology and management of rice insects. Manila, Philippines: Wiley Eastern Limited and New Age International Limited; p. 438 - 442." type="book chapter" year="1994">Dale 1994</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD06253FF11FC3BFF37D989" bold="true" box="[160,251,907,930]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figure 1.</emphasis>
Study sites in Northern Kerala.
</paragraph>
</caption>
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD06252FF71FB2FFD2BDEBF" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="661" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" type="description">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD06253FF71FB2FFE6BDF4D" blockId="2.[160,1156,1010,1728]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">
Distinctive features of the rice case worm larvae include their transparent green bodies with a vibrant brownish-orange head (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FDF8FB72FD68DEF0" box="[585,676,1218,1243]" captionStart="Figure 6" captionStartId="8.[160,225,1141,1164]" captionTargetBox="[163,1152,143,1106]" captionTargetId="figure-106@8.[163,1153,142,1109]" captionTargetPageId="8" captionText="Figure 6. Leaf shelter of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Tubular case of late-instar larva. (b,c) Tubular cases of early-instar larvae. (d) Caterpillar making leaf shelter. (e,f) Caterpillars’ bright brownish-orange head protruding from the tubular case. (g) Silk covers the case’s interior, storing a small layer of water." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219623" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219623/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figure 6</figureCitation>
(e)). To protect themselves from parasitoids and predators, the larvae construct tubular cases by rolling leaves (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FC14FB55FBC1DED5" box="[933,1037,1253,1278]" captionStart="Figure 2" captionStartId="3.[160,225,785,808]" captionTargetBox="[163,1153,143,752]" captionTargetId="figure-252@3.[163,1153,142,754]" captionTargetPageId="3" captionText="Figure 2. Pictorial representation of the process of formation of a normal leaf shelter: (a) first leaf slit made by the first-instar rice case worm larva; (b) making of the second slit; (c) removal of the leaf tip, and rolling of the leaf portion between the first and second slits; (d) detachment of the tubular case from the remaining leaf. Tthe types of parasitised larval leaf shelter: Type 1 = folding of the leaf portion above the first leaf slit; Type 2 = folding of the leaf portion between the first and second cut; and Type 3 = removal of the leaf portion above the first cut and folding the leaf between the two leaf slits." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219615" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219615/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figures 2</figureCitation>
and
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FBFBFB55FB95DED5" box="[1098,1113,1253,1278]" captionStart="Figure 4" captionStartId="6.[160,225,1319,1342]" captionTargetBox="[175,1149,144,1283]" captionTargetId="figure-95@6.[163,1153,142,1288]" captionTargetPageId="6" captionText="Figure 4. Biology of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Unparasitised late-instar P. stagnalis larva in a cut-open case. (b) Normal tubular case of P. stagnalis. (c) Newly formed P. stagnalis pupa in a cut-open case. (d) P. stagnalis pupa within the silken cocoon. (d) Adult P. stagnalis." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219619" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219619/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">4</figureCitation>
(b)). These cases serve as a protective shelter, lined with silk on the interior and containing a small layer of water essential for breathing (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FD3CFA9AFD26DF68" box="[653,746,1322,1347]" captionStart="Figure 6" captionStartId="8.[160,225,1141,1164]" captionTargetBox="[163,1152,143,1106]" captionTargetId="figure-106@8.[163,1153,142,1109]" captionTargetPageId="8" captionText="Figure 6. Leaf shelter of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Tubular case of late-instar larva. (b,c) Tubular cases of early-instar larvae. (d) Caterpillar making leaf shelter. (e,f) Caterpillars’ bright brownish-orange head protruding from the tubular case. (g) Silk covers the case’s interior, storing a small layer of water." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219623" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219623/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figure 6</figureCitation>
(g)). The larval period has five instars (eg
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD06253FF7AFAFDFE56DF4D" author="Surbala Y &amp; Singh KI &amp; Ray DC" box="[203,410,1357,1382]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" pagination="74 - 77" refId="ref6835" refString="Surbala Y, Singh KI, Ray DC. 2016. Studies on biology and morphometric of rice case-worm, Nymphula depunctalis Guenee. J Plant Prot Sci. 24 (1): 74 - 77." type="journal article" year="2016">
Surbala
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD06253FE97FAFDFE9ADF4D" box="[294,342,1357,1382]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">et al</emphasis>
. 2016
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD06252FF71FADFFD2BDEBF" blockId="2.[160,1156,1010,1728]" lastBlockId="3.[160,1156,1043,1172]" lastPageId="3" lastPageNumber="661" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">
Rice case worm larvae thrive in submerged plants, exhibiting semi-aquatic behaviour by climbing plants using their legs to feed on leaves (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD06253FCA7FA22FCB8DF80" box="[790,884,1426,1451]" captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="4.[160,225,1407,1430]" captionTargetBox="[263,1052,143,1372]" captionTargetId="figure-3@4.[261,1055,142,1375]" captionTargetPageId="4" captionText="Figure 3. A pictorial representation of the Paraponyx stagnalis life cycle.(a) Eggs are laid on the abaxial side of the leaf. (b) Newly emerged first-instar larvae are feeding on the leaf tissue. (c,d) Larvae making the leaf shelter. (e) Folded leaf case in the rice leaf. (f) Tubular cases fall off the rice plant, floating on the water. (g) The rice case worm uses its legs to climb up adjacent plants. (h) Caterpillars feed on leaves. (i) Pupae adhere to the culms of rice paddy saplings via the lateral border of the cases, slightly above the water surface." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219617" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219617/files/figure.png" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">Figure 3</figureCitation>
). While consumption is constrained in dry conditions, water droplets on leaves enhance larval feeding. Caterpillars navigate water-logged fields during the day by swimming or following water or wind currents to reach young rice plants. The larval stage lasts between 15 and 30 days, with final-instar larvae reaching the maximum length of
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. Upon completing larval development, the fifth-instar larva seals both ends of its leaf case, pupates within it (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD06253FEC7F9D2FE27DC50" author="Dale D" box="[374,491,1634,1659]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" pagination="438 - 442" refId="ref5472" refString="Dale D. 1994. Insect pests of the rice plant - their biology and ecology, and Heinrichs EA, editor. Biology and management of rice insects. Manila, Philippines: Wiley Eastern Limited and New Age International Limited; p. 438 - 442." type="book chapter" year="1994">Dale 1994</bibRefCitation>
) and stays there for 5–11 days (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD06253FCD9F9D2FBBADC50" author="Viraktamath CA &amp; Puttarudriah M &amp; ChannaBasavanna GP" box="[872,1142,1634,1659]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" pagination="234 - 241" refId="ref6873" refString="Viraktamath CA, Puttarudriah M, ChannaBasavanna GP. 1974. Studies on the biology of rice caseworm, Nymphula depunctalis Guenee (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Science. 8: 234 - 241." type="journal article" year="1974">
Viraktamath
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD06253FC4DF9D2FBE3DC50" box="[1020,1071,1634,1659]" italics="true" pageId="2" pageNumber="660">et al</emphasis>
. 1974
</bibRefCitation>
). Pupae often adhere to rice paddy saplings or wild grasses above water surfaces but may also be immersed in water (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD06253FE64F917FD72DCEB" author="Grist DH &amp; Lever RJAW" box="[469,702,1703,1728]" pageId="2" pageNumber="660" refId="ref5923" refString="Grist DH, Lever RJAW. 1969. Pests of rice. London: Longmans, Greens and Co. Ltd; p. 520." type="journal volume" year="1969">Grist and Lever 1969</bibRefCitation>
). The pupa, about
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in length and
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in width, is initially cream in colour but soon turns silvery white before eclosion. The pupal stage (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD16252FEDDFB85FE00DE65" box="[364,460,1077,1102]" captionStart="Figure 4" captionStartId="6.[160,225,1319,1342]" captionTargetBox="[175,1149,144,1283]" captionTargetId="figure-95@6.[163,1153,142,1288]" captionTargetPageId="6" captionText="Figure 4. Biology of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Unparasitised late-instar P. stagnalis larva in a cut-open case. (b) Normal tubular case of P. stagnalis. (c) Newly formed P. stagnalis pupa in a cut-open case. (d) P. stagnalis pupa within the silken cocoon. (d) Adult P. stagnalis." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219619" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219619/files/figure.png" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Figure 4</figureCitation>
(c,d)) lasts approximately a week. The adult usually emerges through a hole in the upper end of the case (
<figureCitation id="136235DAFFD16252FD17FBE8FCCFDE5A" box="[678,771,1112,1137]" captionStart="Figure 4" captionStartId="6.[160,225,1319,1342]" captionTargetBox="[175,1149,144,1283]" captionTargetId="figure-95@6.[163,1153,142,1288]" captionTargetPageId="6" captionText="Figure 4. Biology of Paraponyx stagnalis. (a) Unparasitised late-instar P. stagnalis larva in a cut-open case. (b) Normal tubular case of P. stagnalis. (c) Newly formed P. stagnalis pupa in a cut-open case. (d) P. stagnalis pupa within the silken cocoon. (d) Adult P. stagnalis." figureDoi="http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13219619" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/13219619/files/figure.png" pageId="3" pageNumber="661">Figure 4</figureCitation>
(e)). The life cycle of
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is completed within a month (
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).
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132
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<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FE92FC6AFD6DD9DE" blockId="5.[291,1023,986,1013]" box="[291,673,986,1013]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
Genus
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FEC8FC6AFE33D9DE" box="[377,511,986,1013]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Paraphylax</emphasis>
Förster 1869
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<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD76254FD18FC6AFC33D9DE" box="[681,1023,986,1013]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" type="multiple">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FD18FC6AFC33D9DE" blockId="5.[291,1023,986,1013]" box="[681,1023,986,1013]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
(
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: Cryptinae)
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<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FF11FB95FEFBDF5D" blockId="5.[160,1156,1061,1398]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FF11FB95FEB7DE15" ID-CoL="6G8Q" authority="Foerster" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1869" box="[160,379,1061,1086]" class="Insecta" family="Ichneumonidae" genus="Paraphylax" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FF11FB95FED6DE15" box="[160,282,1061,1086]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Paraphylax</emphasis>
Foerster
</taxonomicName>
(
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: Cryptinae) is typically seen as parasitic on psychids, microlepidopterans, spider egg cocoons, and other ichneumonids. It is known from the Afrotropical, Australasian, Eastern Palaearctic, Oceanic, and Oriental regions (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FBA7FBDAFBBADEA8" author="Yu D" box="[1046,1142,1130,1155]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" refId="ref7118" refString="Yu D. 2013. Home of Ichneumonoidea. [accessed 2019 Mar 16]. http: // www. taxapad. com /." type="url" year="2013">Yu 2013</bibRefCitation>
). The genus has also been recorded in the Neotropical region (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FC32FB3DFEF6DEE3" author="Gonzalez-Moreno A &amp; Bordera S" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="1 - 21" refId="ref5805" refString="Gonzalez-Moreno A, Bordera S. 2011. New records of Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) from Mexico. Zootaxa. 2879 (1): 1 - 21. doi: 10.11646 / zootaxa. 2879.1.1." type="journal article" year="2011">González-Moreno and Bordera 2011</bibRefCitation>
). From
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,
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FE6FFB1FFD6FDEE3" box="[478,675,1199,1224]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Paraphylax varius</emphasis>
(Walker)
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is described from the bagworm
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FF11FB62FEE7DEC0" box="[160,299,1234,1259]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Metisa plana</emphasis>
Walker (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FE36FB62FDB4DEC0" author="Kamarudin NH &amp; Walker AK &amp; Wahid MB &amp; LaSalle J &amp; Polaszek A" box="[391,632,1234,1259]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="423 - 439" refId="ref6157" refString="Kamarudin NH, Walker AK, Wahid MB, LaSalle J, Polaszek A. 1996. Hymenopterous parasitoids associated with the bagworms Metisa plana and Mahasena corbetti (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) on oil palms in Peninsular Malaysia. Bull Entom Res. 86 (4): 423 - 439. doi: 10.1017 / S 000748530003501 X." type="journal article" year="1996">
Kamarudin
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FDB8FB62FDFADEC0" box="[521,566,1234,1259]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">et al</emphasis>
. 1996
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)
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and
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FD04FB62FCB7DEC0" box="[693,891,1234,1259]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Heliothis armigera</emphasis>
Huebner (
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Choudhary
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FBDEFB62FF78DF25" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">et al</emphasis>
. 1983
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)
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. Moreover,
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FE36FB45FDCDDF25" box="[391,513,1269,1294]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Paraphylax</emphasis>
sp.
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is documented for the first time from
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FC53FB45FF32DF1B" authorityName="Gupta" authorityYear="2013" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Glyptapanteles" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="trilochae">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FC53FB45FF32DF1B" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Glyptapanteles trilochae</emphasis>
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(
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:
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) cocoons associated with the caterpillar of
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<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FB9DFAA7FF23DF78" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Trilocha varians</emphasis>
(Walker)
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as a hyperparasitoid. However, the species identity could not be verified (
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<heading id="D0AE9E33FFD76254FEEBFE16FC05DBEA" box="[346,969,422,449]" centered="true" fontSize="11" level="2" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" reason="5">
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD76254FEEBFE16FD50DBEA" box="[346,668,422,449]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FEEBFE16FD50DBEA" blockId="5.[346,969,422,449]" box="[346,668,422,449]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
Genus
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FE01FE16FD50DBEA" ID-CoL="62QC9" authority="Westwood" authorityName="Westwood" authorityYear="1833" box="[432,668,422,449]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" genus="Elasmus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FE01FE16FDDDDBEA" box="[432,529,422,449]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Elasmus</emphasis>
Westwood
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD76254FD15FE16FC05DBEA" box="[676,969,422,449]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" type="multiple">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FD15FE16FC05DBEA" blockId="5.[346,969,422,449]" box="[676,969,422,449]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
(
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FD1AFE16FCF6DBEA" baseAuthorityName="Haliday" baseAuthorityYear="1833" box="[683,826,422,449]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Eulophidae</taxonomicName>
:
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FCF7FE16FC08DBEA" authorityName="Förster" authorityYear="1856" box="[838,964,422,449]" class="Insecta" family="Eulophidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Elasminae">Elasminae</taxonomicName>
)
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</heading>
<subSubSection id="C3437AD4FFD76254FF11FE5AFBCBD988" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" type="description">
<paragraph id="8BE6295FFFD76254FF11FE5AFBCBD988" blockId="5.[160,1156,490,931]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">
Species within this genus exhibit a dual role as hyperparasitoids targeting
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FBA8FE5AFB4FD828" authorityName="Foerster" authorityYear="1863" box="[1049,1155,490,515]" class="Insecta" family="Braconidae" genus="Apanteles" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FBA8FE5AFB4FD828" box="[1049,1155,490,515]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Apanteles</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
genus species (refer to
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FE18FDBDFD8DD80D" author="Graham MDV" box="[425,577,525,550]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="293 - 301" refId="ref5844" refString="Graham MDV. 1976. Notes on the type-material of some European Elasmus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) and description of a new species from Madeira. Bulletin du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (Zoologie). 255: 293 - 301." type="journal article" year="1976">Graham 1976</bibRefCitation>
,
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FDFEFDBDFD4AD80D" author="Graham MWR" box="[591,646,525,550]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="1 - 23" refId="ref5889" refString="Graham MWR. 1995. European Elasmus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea, Elasmidae) with a key and descriptions of five new species. Entomol's Mon Mag. 131: 1 - 23." type="journal article" year="1995">1995</bibRefCitation>
) and ectoparasitoids specialising in larvae of the wasp genus
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FEE5FD80FE68D862" box="[340,420,560,585]" class="Insecta" family="Eumenidae" genus="Polistes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FEE5FD80FE68D862" box="[340,420,560,585]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">Polistes</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FE01FD80FD82D862" box="[432,590,560,585]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Hymenoptera</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FDE6FD80FD0DD862" box="[599,705,560,585]" class="Insecta" family="Vespidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Hymenoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Vespidae</taxonomicName>
), as well as various lepidopteran families, including
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FEA4FDE2FE71D840" box="[277,445,594,619]" class="Insecta" family="Coleophoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Coleophoridae</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FE7DFDE2FD8BD840" box="[460,583,594,619]" class="Insecta" family="Tortricidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Tortricidae</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FDE4FDE2FD25D840" authorityName="Stainton" authorityYear="1854" box="[597,745,594,619]" class="Insecta" family="Gracillariidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Gracillariidae</taxonomicName>
,
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FD49FDE2FC70D840" authorityName="Heinemann &amp; Wocke" authorityYear="1876" box="[760,956,594,619]" class="Insecta" family="Cosmopterigidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cosmopterigidae</taxonomicName>
, and
<taxonomicName id="4C5952DCFFD76254FBB1FDE2FDD1D8A5" authority="(Yefremova and Strakhova 2010)" baseAuthorityName="Yefremova and Strakhova" baseAuthorityYear="2010" class="Insecta" family="Gelechiidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Lepidoptera" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">
Gelechiidae (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FF17FDC5FDD8D8A5" author="Yefremova ZA &amp; Strakhova IS" box="[166,532,629,654]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="903 - 926" refId="ref7030" refString="Yefremova ZA, Strakhova IS. 2010. A review of the species of the genus Elasmus Westwood (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae) from Russia and neighboring countries. Entomol Rev. 90: 903 - 926. doi: 10.1134 / S 0013873810070080" type="journal article" year="2010">Yefremova and Strakhova 2010</bibRefCitation>
)
</taxonomicName>
. Identifying characteristics of the genus include the female’s antenna with two anelli, a three-segmented flagellum, and a three-segmented clava, while the male possesses a trifurcate four-segmented flagellum and a two-segmented clava. The mesoscutum is densely covered with hairs, and the scutellum features two pairs of long setae. Notable wing characteristics include an elongated marginal vein, a short post marginal vein, and a slightly reduced stigma vein. The hind coxa is smooth, subdiscoidal (plate-like), and significantly enlarged, while the hind tibia exhibits short setae forming a continuous diamond shape. Colourations commonly involve yellow, black, and brown hues, often adorned with distinctive spots (
<bibRefCitation id="EFC854AEFFD76254FCE3FC3AFC36D988" author="Kim IK &amp; Kwon O &amp; Choi MB" box="[850,1018,906,931]" pageId="5" pageNumber="663" pagination="472 - 476" refId="ref6218" refString="Kim IK, Kwon O, Choi MB. 2016. Two species of Elasmus japonicus Ashmead and Elasmus polistis Burks (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) reared from nests of Polistes (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) in Korea. J Asia-Pac Biodivers. 9 (4): 472 - 476. doi: 10.1016 / j. japb. 2016.07.005." type="journal article" year="2016">
Kim
<emphasis id="B92DF54DFFD76254FC37FC3AFC7AD988" box="[902,950,906,931]" italics="true" pageId="5" pageNumber="663">et al</emphasis>
. 2016
</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
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