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is widely used as an effective growth inhibitor for diatoms and other silicifying microalgae (e.g. chrysophytes). It competitively inhibits the uptake of Si through Si-transporters (SITs), which eventually interrupts cell wall formation in the algae (
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electrons 0.1
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Physiological parameters of the large-scale cultivation of
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<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F340FD99FB47FDE6" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[1146,1311,579,656]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
(
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), of (
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photosynthesis) maximum) and
</paragraph>
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(D) electron light (
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</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F26BFD63FADBFD38" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[1361,1401,666,685]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > days</paragraph>
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F260FD84FADFFD05" box= "[1370,1405,637,656]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Ulva</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F243FD63FF16FD4A" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > ) μmol</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F798FD26FF16FD71" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[162,180,735,740]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > (</paragraph>
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<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F569FD27FDCBFD47" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[595,617,717,747]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
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(
</emphasis>
</paragraph>
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<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F55EFD21FDCDFD4B" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[612,623,728,734]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
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</subScript>
</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F544FD3BFD36FD41" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[638,660,706,724]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > 50</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F5B3FD23FD36FD79" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[649,660,730,748]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > 0</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F4CFFD41FADFFD58" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[1013,1405,696,744]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
in concentrations 100-l Plexiglass at 140 water µmol tanks photons with three m
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s GeO
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</paragraph>
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<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F4CFFD0BFAD4FC90" blockId= "4.[139,1421,191,831]" box= "[1013,1398,754,773]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
and 12 °
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. Data are means of three replicates
</paragraph>
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0
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<geoCoordinate id= "EE5E4388FFD4FFB9F6F4FD07FE5DFC85" box= "[462,511,766,784]" degrees= "2.235" direction= "east" orientation= "longitude" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" precision= "55" value= "2.235" > 2.235</geoCoordinate>
0
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</paragraph>
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per treatment (
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= 3) and error bars represent
</paragraph>
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GeO
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concentration (mg L−
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) GeO
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concentration (mg L−
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) standard deviations.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F678FAF3FEEBFA81" box= "[322,329,1290,1300]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > 2</paragraph>
<caption id= "DF1575C7FFD4FFB9F7B2FAC6FDDFFA71" ID-DOI= "http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11360462" ID-Zenodo-Dep= "11360462" httpUri= "https://zenodo.org/record/11360462/files/figure.png" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" startId= "4.[136,194,1343,1362]" targetBox= "[145,589,890,1295]" targetPageId= "4" targetType= "figure" >
<paragraph id= "8BD5254FFFD4FFB9F7B2FAC6FDDFFA71" blockId= "4.[136,747,1343,1508]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F7B2FAC6FF7AFAC7" bold= "true" box= "[136,216,1343,1362]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Figure 5:</emphasis>
GeO
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-dependent total diatom density present on the surfaces of Plexiglass water tanks after 14 days of large-scale cultivation of
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F586FAA5FF7BFA19" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Ulva fenestrata</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. Data are means of three replicates per treatment (
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F5A9FA80FD3FFA19" box= "[659,669,1401,1420]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > n</emphasis>
= 3) and error bars represent standard deviations. Lowercase letters above columns indicate statistically significant differences between the treatments (
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F7B4FA28FF3AFA71" box= "[142,152,1489,1508]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > P</emphasis>
< 0.001, 1-way ANOVA, Tukey-Kramer HSD
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F53DFA28FDEEFA71" box= "[519,588,1489,1508]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > post-hoc</emphasis>
test).
</paragraph>
</caption>
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Toxicological studies have shown species- and strain-specific responses of diatoms to GeO
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. While concentrations of up to
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GeO
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l
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inhibited the growth of highly silicified diatom species (e.g.
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F61BF975FDB7F934" box= "[289,533,1676,1697]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Amphiphora paludosa</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
,
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F516F975FF69F951" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Cylindrotheca fusiformis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), diatoms with a low degree of silicified cell walls (e.g.
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F7B2F928FE19F972" box= "[136,443,1745,1767]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Phaeodactylum tricornutum</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) were insensitive even to 10 GeO
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mg
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l
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(
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F610F90DFE05F89F" author= "Lewin, J." box= "[298,423,1780,1802]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "1 - 12" refId= "ref7848" refString= "Lewin, J. (1966). Silicon metabolism in diatoms. V. Germanium dioxide, a specific inhibitor of diatom growth. Phycologia 6: 1 - 12." type= "journal article" year= "1966" > Lewin 1966</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F68EF90DFD5AF89C" author= "Markham, J. W. & Hagmeier, E." box= "[436,760,1780,1802]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" refId= "ref8098" refString= "Markham, J. W. and Hagmeier, E. (1982). Observations on the effects of germanium dioxide on the growth of macro-algae and diatoms." type= "book" year= "1982" > Markham and Hagmeier 1982</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F7B2F8EFFE1CF8B8" author= "Tatewaki, M. & Mizuno, M." box= "[136,446,1814,1837]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "205 - 212" refId= "ref8594" refString= "Tatewaki, M. and Mizuno, M. (1979). Growth inhibition by germanium dioxide in various algae, especially in brown algae. Jpn. J. Phycol. 27: 205 - 212." type= "journal article" year= "1979" > Tatewaki and Mizuno 1979</bibRefCitation>
). By using these results as benchmark for the present study,
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F6C6F8C3FDD1F8DA" box= "[508,627,1850,1871]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
seems to be highly sensitive to GeO
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because its growth was inhibited at a low concentration of
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GeO
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l
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. Assuming that Si uptake in
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD4FFB9F4BCFC8BFC59FC12" box= "[902,1019,882,903]" class= "Bacillariophyceae" family= "Bacillariaceae" genus= "Fragilariopsis" higherTaxonomySource= "GBIF" kingdom= "Chromista" order= "Bacillariales" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" phylum= "Ochrophyta" rank= "species" species= "oceanica" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F4BCFC8BFC59FC12" box= "[902,1019,882,903]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is mediated by SITs at low Si concentrations in seawater (< 30 µM) as shown for
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD4FFB9F23BFC6DFA84FC59" authority= "(Thamatrakoln and Hildebrand 2008)" baseAuthorityName= "Thamatrakoln and Hildebrand" baseAuthorityYear= "2008" class= "Bacillariophyceae" family= "Thalassiosiraceae" genus= "Thalassiosira" higherTaxonomySource= "GBIF" kingdom= "Chromista" order= "Thalassiosirales" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" phylum= "Ochrophyta" rank= "species" species= "pseudonana" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F23BFC6DFC35FC5E" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Thalassiosira pseudonana</emphasis>
(
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F49EFC4FFABDFC59" author= "Thamatrakoln, K. & Hildebrand, M." box= "[932,1311,950,972]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "1397 - 1407" refId= "ref8633" refString= "Thamatrakoln, K. and Hildebrand, M. (2008). Silicon uptake in diatoms revisited: a model for saturable and nonsaturable uptake kinetics and the role of silicon transporters. Plant Physiol. 146: 1397 - 1407." type= "journal article" year= "2008" > Thamatrakoln and Hildebrand 2008</bibRefCitation>
)
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, a growth inhibition by GeO
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could have been expected because the seawater Si concentration used was approx. 2.1 µM (
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F277FC02FC28FBA1" author= "Busch, K. & Iversen, K. & Nashoug, B. & Kiele, M. & Gitmark, J. & Remen, V. & Velvin, R. & Krogstad, M." pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" refId= "ref6688" refString= "Busch, K., Iversen, K., Nashoug, B., Kiele, M., Gitmark, J., Remen, V., Velvin, R., and Krogstad, M. (2014). MiljOundersOkelse av Skjerstadfjorden. Report 1006, Salt Lofoten AS, Svolvaer." type= "book" year= "2014" > Busch et al. 2014</bibRefCitation>
). However, if Si was added to the seawater according to formulation of the
<collectionCode id= "ED7BBD8AFFD4FFB9F358FBB9FB01FBC0" box= "[1122,1187,1088,1109]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > ESNW</collectionCode>
medium with a final concentration of 106 µM, a different result would have been observed because diffusive Si uptake predominates at higher Si concentrations (
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F4E4FB51FAFEFB2B" author= "Thamatrakoln, K. & Hildebrand, M." box= "[990,1372,1192,1214]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "1397 - 1407" refId= "ref8633" refString= "Thamatrakoln, K. and Hildebrand, M. (2008). Silicon uptake in diatoms revisited: a model for saturable and nonsaturable uptake kinetics and the role of silicon transporters. Plant Physiol. 146: 1397 - 1407." type= "journal article" year= "2008" > Thamatrakoln and Hildebrand 2008</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
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Interestingly, the use of GeO
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in
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the glass beakers and Plexiglass water tanks showed different effects on
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F272FB17FCF6FAB0" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
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. While low GeO
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concentration inhibited the growth of
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F402FACAFC13FADD" box= "[824,945,1331,1352]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
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, the colonisation of the Plexiglass walls by
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F420FAACFC32FAFF" box= "[794,912,1365,1386]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
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could not be fully prevented even by the use of
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GeO
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l
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. This could be possibly ascribed to the different physical surface properties between glass and Plexiglass. Insoluble extracellular polymeric substances (
<collectionCode id= "ED7BBD8AFFD4FFB9F41AFA26FCE8FA60" box= "[800,842,1503,1525]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > EPS</collectionCode>
) secreted by diatoms allow them to adsorb better on hydrophobic surfaces such as Plexiglass than on the hydrophilic surfaces of the glass beakers (
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F3F5F9DDFA2BF9AC" author= "Finlay, J. A. & Schultz, M. P. & Cone, G. & Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A." box= "[1231,1417,1572,1594]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" refId= "ref7249" refString= "Finlay, J. A., Schultz, M. P., Cone, G., Callow, M. E., and Callow, J. A. (2013)." type= "book" year= "2013" > Finlay et al. 2013</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F420F9BFFC54F9C9" author= "Holland, R. & Dugdale, T. M. & Wetherbee, R. & Brennan, A. B. & Finlay, J. A. & Callow, J. A. & Callow, M. E." box= "[794,1014,1606,1628]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "323 - 329" refId= "ref7476" refString= "Holland, R., Dugdale, T. M., Wetherbee, R., Brennan, A. B., Finlay, J. A., Callow, J. A., and Callow, M. E. (2004). Adhesion and motility of fouling diatoms on a silicone elastomer. Biofouling 20: 323 - 329." type= "journal article" year= "2004" >
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et al. 2004
</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F332F9BFFB50F9C9" author= "Krishnan, S. & Wang, N. & Ober, C. K. & Finlay, J. A. & Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. & Hexemer, A. & Sohn, K. E. & Kramer, E. J. & Fischer, D. A." box= "[1032,1266,1606,1628]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" refId= "ref7745" refString= "Krishnan, S., Wang, N., Ober, C. K., Finlay, J. A., Callow, M. E., Callow, J. A., Hexemer, A., Sohn, K. E., Kramer, E. J., and Fischer, D. A. (2006)." type= "book" year= "2006" > Krishnan et al. 2006</bibRefCitation>
; reviewed by
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F420F990FBE2F9EA" author= "Thompson, S. E. M. & Coates, J. C." box= "[794,1088,1641,1663]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "410 - 432" refId= "ref8676" refString= "Thompson, S. E. M. and Coates, J. C. (2017). Surface sensing and stresssignalling in Ulva and fouling diatoms - potential targets for antifouling: a review. Biofouling 33: 410 - 432." type= "journal article" year= "2017" > Thompson and Coates 2017</bibRefCitation>
). In addition, EPS-rich biofilms from
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD4FFB9F462F972FC74F935" authorityName= "Shiba" authorityYear= "1991" box= "[856,982,1675,1696]" class= "Alphaproteobacteria" family= "Rhodobacteraceae" genus= "Roseobacter" kingdom= "Bacteria" order= "Rhodobacterales" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" phylum= "Proteobacteria" rank= "genus" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F462F972FC74F935" box= "[856,982,1675,1696]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Roseobacter</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F31AF972FB3AF935" box= "[1056,1176,1675,1698]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" >
ul
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tobacter
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, which are associated with
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<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F469F957FC20F956" box= "[851,898,1710,1731]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > Ulva</emphasis>
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, could have enhanced the attachment of
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD4FFB9F272F956FCF1F973" class= "Bacillariophyceae" family= "Bacillariaceae" genus= "Fragilariopsis" higherTaxonomySource= "GBIF" kingdom= "Chromista" order= "Bacillariales" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" phylum= "Ochrophyta" rank= "species" species= "oceanica" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F272F956FCF1F973" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
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on the Plexiglass walls (
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F374F928FABEF973" author= "Bruckner, C. G. & Rehm, C. & Grossart, H. - P. & Kroth, P. G." box= "[1102,1308,1745,1767]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "1052 - 1063" refId= "ref6574" refString= "Bruckner, C. G., Rehm, C., Grossart, H. - P., and Kroth, P. G. (2011). Growth and release of extracellular organic compounds by benthic diatoms depend on interactions with bacteria. Environ. Microbiol. 13: 1052 - 1063." type= "journal article" year= "2011" > Bruckner et al. 2011</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F21FF928FC21F89C" author= "Buhmann, M. T. & Schulze, B. & FOrderer, A. & Schleheck, D. & Kroth, P. G." pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "463 - 474" refId= "ref6631" refString= "Buhmann, M. T., Schulze, B., FOrderer, A., Schleheck, D., and Kroth, P. G. (2016). Bacteria may induce the secretion of mucin-like proteins by the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Phycol. 52: 463 - 474." type= "journal article" year= "2016" > Buhmann et al. 2016</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation id= "EFFB58BEFFD4FFB9F4B7F90AFBFCF89C" author= "Spoerner, M. & Wichard, T. & Bachhuber, T. & Stratmann, J. & Oertel, W." box= "[909,1118,1779,1801]" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" pagination= "1433 - 1447" refId= "ref8492" refString= "Spoerner, M., Wichard, T., Bachhuber, T., Stratmann, J., and Oertel, W. (2012). Growth and thallus morphogenesis of Ulva mutabilis (Chlorophyta) depends on a combination of two bacterial species excreting regulatory factors. J. Phycol. 48: 1433 - 1447." type= "journal article" year= "2012" > Spoerner et al. 2012</bibRefCitation>
). Thus, the bacterial biofilms could help
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD4FFB9F4A9F8EFFBABF8BE" box= "[915,1033,1814,1835]" class= "Bacillariophyceae" family= "Bacillariaceae" genus= "Fragilariopsis" higherTaxonomySource= "GBIF" kingdom= "Chromista" order= "Bacillariales" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" phylum= "Ochrophyta" rank= "species" species= "oceanica" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD4FFB9F4A9F8EFFBABF8BE" box= "[915,1033,1814,1835]" italics= "true" pageId= "4" pageNumber= "97" > F. oceanica</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
to overcome the negative effects of GeO
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. Other factors such as the different treatments of the glass beakers (acid-washed) and water tanks (hand washing and sodium hypochlorite) prior to the experiments could also have contributed to the different outcomes of the two experiments. Nevertheless, since the large-scale experiment showed a considerable reduction in diatom density on the Plexiglass surfaces by
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GeO
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l
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(f.c.), the costs for the biomass production of
<taxonomicName id= "4C6A5ECCFFD5FFB8F6AEFEB2FDB5FEF5" box= "[404,535,331,352]" class= "Ulvophyceae" family= "Ulvaceae" genus= "Ulva" kingdom= "Plantae" order= "Ulvales" pageId= "5" pageNumber= "98" phylum= "Chlorophyta" rank= "species" species= "fenestrata" >
<emphasis id= "B91EF95DFFD5FFB8F6AEFEB2FDB5FEF5" box= "[404,535,331,352]" italics= "true" pageId= "5" pageNumber= "98" > U. fenestrata</emphasis>
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are expected to be lower than without employing any GeO
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at all.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
