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<document ID-DOI="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.109.1439" ID-PMC="PMC3118819" ID-Pensoft-Pub="1313-2970-109-19" ID-Pensoft-UUID="FFDE6B4A96644D30FFD8FFEA7F28FFF8" ID-PubMed="21852932" ID-Zenodo-Dep="577024" ModsDocID="1313-2970-109-19" checkinTime="1451250264676" checkinUser="pensoft" docAuthor="Kaiser, Hinrich, Carvalho, Venancio Lopes, Ceballos, Jester, Freed, Paul, Heacox, Scott, Lester, Barbara, Richards, Stephen J., Trainor, Colin R., Sanchez, Caitlin &amp; O'Shea, Mark" docDate="2011" docId="553DA7F48B7F09A4D5C697B9B1D49C5F" docLanguage="en" docName="ZooKeys 109: 19-86" docOrigin="ZooKeys 109" docPubDate="2011-06-20" docSource="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.109.1439" docTitle="Duttaphrynus melanostictus" docType="treatment" docVersion="5" id="FFDE6B4A96644D30FFD8FFEA7F28FFF8" lastPageNumber="28" masterDocId="FFDE6B4A96644D30FFD8FFEA7F28FFF8" masterDocTitle="The herpetofauna of Timor-Leste: a first report" masterLastPageNumber="86" masterPageNumber="19" pageNumber="26" updateTime="1668151585581" updateUser="ExternalLinkService">
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<mods:titleInfo>
<mods:title>The herpetofauna of Timor-Leste: a first report</mods:title>
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<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Kaiser, Hinrich</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Department of Biology, Victor Valley College, 18422 Bear Valley Road, Victorville, California 92395, USA; and The Foundation for Post-Conflict Development, 245 Park Avenue, 24 th Floor, New York, New York 10167, USA</mods:affiliation>
<mods:nameIdentifier type="email">chalcopis@yahoo.com</mods:nameIdentifier>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Carvalho, Venancio Lopes</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Universidade National Timor-Lorosa'e, Faculdade de Ciencias da Educacao, Departamentu da Biologia, Avenida Cidade de Lisboa, Liceu Dr. Francisco Machado, Dili, Timor-Leste</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Ceballos, Jester</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Department of Biology, Victor Valley College, 18422 Bear Valley Road, Victorville, California 92395, USA; and The Foundation for Post-Conflict Development, 245 Park Avenue, 24 th Floor, New York, New York 10167, USA</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Freed, Paul</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>14149 S. Butte Creek Road, Scotts Mills, Oregon 97375, USA</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Heacox, Scott</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Department of Biology, Victor Valley College, 18422 Bear Valley Road, Victorville, California 92395, USA; and The Foundation for Post-Conflict Development, 245 Park Avenue, 24 th Floor, New York, New York 10167, USA</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Lester, Barbara</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>14149 S. Butte Creek Road, Scotts Mills, Oregon 97375, USA</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Richards, Stephen J.</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Conservation International, PO Box 1024, Atherton, Queensland 4883, Australia; and Herpetology Department, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Trainor, Colin R.</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>Sanchez, Caitlin</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>Department of Biology, Victor Valley College, 18422 Bear Valley Road, Victorville, California 92395, USA; and The Foundation for Post-Conflict Development, 245 Park Avenue, 24 th Floor, New York, New York 10167, USA</mods:affiliation>
</mods:name>
<mods:name type="personal">
<mods:role>
<mods:roleTerm>Author</mods:roleTerm>
</mods:role>
<mods:namePart>O'Shea, Mark</mods:namePart>
<mods:affiliation>West Midland Safari Park, Bewdley, Worcestershire DY 12 1 LF, United Kingdom; and Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia</mods:affiliation>
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<mods:title>ZooKeys</mods:title>
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<mods:date>2011</mods:date>
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<mods:number>2011-06-20</mods:number>
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<mods:detail type="volume">
<mods:number>109</mods:number>
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<mods:start>19</mods:start>
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<mods:url>http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.109.1439</mods:url>
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<mods:identifier type="DOI">http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.109.1439</mods:identifier>
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<mods:identifier type="Pensoft-UUID">FFDE6B4A96644D30FFD8FFEA7F28FFF8</mods:identifier>
<mods:identifier type="Zenodo-Dep">577024</mods:identifier>
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<treatment ID-GBIF-Taxon="152029823" LSID="urn:lsid:plazi:treatment:553DA7F48B7F09A4D5C697B9B1D49C5F" httpUri="http://treatment.plazi.org/id/553DA7F48B7F09A4D5C697B9B1D49C5F" lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="28" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">
<subSubSection pageId="7" pageNumber="26" type="nomenclature">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">
<taxonomicName LSID="553DA7F4-8B7F-09A4-D5C6-97B9B1D49C5F" authority="(Schneider, 1799)" baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="Duttaphrynus melanostictus" order="Anura" pageId="7" pageNumber="26" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799)</taxonomicName>
<figureCitation captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="F3" captionText="Figure 3. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Yellow morph from Same, Manufahi District (SVL 53 mm). Photo by Mark O'Shea." httpUri="https://binary.pensoft.net/fig/15832" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Fig. 3</figureCitation>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="7" pageNumber="26" type="common names">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Common names.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">(E) Black-spined Toad, Common Asian Toad, Common Sunda Toad. (T) Manduku Interfet (manduku = frog, INTERFET = International Force for East Timor; see below).</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="7" pageNumber="26" type="identification">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Identification.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">
This toad can be recognized by its stout body, dry and warty skin, and by the distinct pattern of bony ridges (cranial crests) on the head. The shape and color of these ridges are characters useful for distinguishing among different toad species. In
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="7" pageNumber="26" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
they are of varying thickness and include a canthal ridge, supralabial ridge, and a series of ridges framing the eye (preorbital, supraorbital, postorbital, and orbito-tympanic ridges;
<figureCitation captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="F3" captionText="Figure 3. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Yellow morph from Same, Manufahi District (SVL 53 mm). Photo by Mark O'Shea." httpUri="https://binary.pensoft.net/fig/15832" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Fig. 3</figureCitation>
). The tops of these ridges are usually black. A second important and useful characteristic to differentiate between toad species is the size and shape of the large parotoid gland (sometimes also described as a
<normalizedToken originalValue="“poison”">&quot;poison&quot;</normalizedToken>
gland) on either side of the head. In
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="7" pageNumber="26" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
this gland is elongate and about
<normalizedToken originalValue="2½">21/2</normalizedToken>
-3 times the size of the eye (
<figureCitation captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="F3" captionText="Figure 3. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Yellow morph from Same, Manufahi District (SVL 53 mm). Photo by Mark O'Shea." httpUri="https://binary.pensoft.net/fig/15832" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Fig. 3</figureCitation>
). This species of toad also usually has several protruding wart-like skin glands on its back behind its head in addition to many smaller glands all over its body, most of which are tipped with black. Our familiarity with the species from elsewhere in the region allows us to confirm its identity.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="8" lastPageNumber="27" pageId="7" pageNumber="26" type="collection and natural history">
<paragraph pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Collection and natural history.</paragraph>
<paragraph lastPageId="8" lastPageNumber="27" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">
Hiding under a diverse array of objects by day and active by night, this toad is a relatively recent invader of Timor-Leste (see
<bibRefCitation author="Trainor, CR" journalOrPublisher="University of Kansas Science Bulletin" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" refId="B87" refString="Trainor, CR, 2009. . Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294., 46 pp." title=". Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294" year="2009">Trainor 2009</bibRefCitation>
), yet it was one of the most commonly encountered amphibians where it occurred. The distribution of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="7" pageNumber="26" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="7" pageNumber="26">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in Timor-Leste currently excludes areas of high elevation (above ca. 1200 m) as well as the region east of a line connecting Manatuto and Viqueque (
<bibRefCitation author="Trainor, CR" journalOrPublisher="University of Kansas Science Bulletin" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" refId="B87" refString="Trainor, CR, 2009. . Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294., 46 pp." title=". Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294" year="2009">Trainor 2009</bibRefCitation>
). We collected five voucher specimens at night (e.g., on the path leading to the Trilolo River north of Same, Manufahi District, altitude 553 m) and noted the presence of this species in disturbed habitats (e.g., towns, roadsides), cultivated habitats (e.g., coffee plantations) and some fairly pristine habitats (e.g., coastal scrub). Individuals ranged from tadpoles and juveniles (though not recent metamorphs) to adults and they exhibited varying shades of dull yellow to brown
<pageBreakToken pageId="8" pageNumber="27" start="start">coloration</pageBreakToken>
. This is the only species of true toad reported from Timor-Leste so far, but we have been unable to verify the presence of specimens from Timor in herpetological collections. Therefore, our records appear to be the first vouchered confirmation of this species for Timor-Leste and Timor.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="28" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" type="toad introductions">
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Toad introductions.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="8" pageNumber="27">
Reports by Australian peacekeepers of the cane toad,
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, in Timor-Leste are an error arising from the
<normalizedToken originalValue="soldiers’">soldiers'</normalizedToken>
familiarity with
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, the only bufonid introduced to Australia and New Guinea, and their lack of familiarity with the Asian
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. It is interesting in this regard that this species has taken on the Tetun name of the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET), the transitional peacekeeping force that arrived to stabilize the country after the departure of the Indonesian occupation force. INTERFET was composed primarily of Australian peacekeepers and the local belief, based on the erroneous identification of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
by these personnel, is that INTERFET is responsible for the presence of this toad in Timor-Leste. The distribution of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
includes several other Lesser Sunda Islands (e.g., Bali, Lombok), and it may be impossible to ascertain from where and when the initial wave of toad invasion originated.
</paragraph>
<paragraph lastPageId="9" lastPageNumber="28" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">
The introduction of toads to non-native environments has frequently resulted in ecological disasters. The most notorious example of this has been the cane toad (
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="8" pageNumber="27" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="8" pageNumber="27">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
)
<pageBreakToken pageId="9" pageNumber="28" start="start">,</pageBreakToken>
whose spread by humans has become a problem with nearly global implications (e.g.,
<bibRefCitation author="Covacevich, J" journalOrPublisher="Memoirs of the Queensland Museum" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" pagination="305 - 310" refId="B22" refString="Covacevich, J, Archer, M, 1975. The distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 17: 305 - 310" title="The distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates." volume="17" year="1975">Covacevich and Archer 1975</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Lever, C" journalOrPublisher="Westbury Academic &amp; Scientific Publishing, Otley, West Yorkshire" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" refId="B59" refString="Lever, C, 2001. The Cane Toad. The History and Ecology of a Successful Colonist. Westbury Academic &amp; Scientific Publishing, Otley, West Yorkshire, 289 pp." title="The Cane Toad. The History and Ecology of a Successful Colonist." year="2001">Lever 2001</bibRefCitation>
;
<bibRefCitation author="Phillips, BL" journalOrPublisher="Austral Ecology" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" pagination="169 - 176" publicationUrl="doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01664.x" refId="B76" refString="Phillips, BL, Brown, GP, Greenlees, M, Webb, JK, Shine, R, 2007. Rapid expansion of the cane toad (Bufo marinus) invasion front in tropical Australia. Austral Ecology 32: 169 - 176, doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01664.x" title="Rapid expansion of the cane toad (Bufo marinus) invasion front in tropical Australia." url="doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01664.x" volume="32" year="2007">Phillips et al. 2007</bibRefCitation>
). The species has been carried from its native northern South American habitat to locations as widespread as the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Florida, Hawaii, the Fiji Islands, the Philippines, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Island Archipelago of Japan, several Pacific islands, New Guinea, and, famously, Australia (see
<bibRefCitation author="Zug, GR" journalOrPublisher="Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" pagination="1 - 58" publicationUrl="doi:10.5479/si.00810282.284" refId="B97" refString="Zug, GR, Zug, PB, 1979. The marine toad, Bufo marinus: a natural history resume of native populations. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 284: 1 - 58, doi:10.5479/si.00810282.284" title="The marine toad, Bufo marinus: a natural history resume of native populations." url="doi:10.5479/si.00810282.284" volume="284" year="1979">Zug and Zug 1979</bibRefCitation>
). It appears that the spread of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
may rank a close second in terms of its geographic reach (from the Indian subcontinent throughout mainland and insular Southeast Asia), though perhaps not in terms of its ecological significance (e.g.,
<bibRefCitation author="Inger, RF" journalOrPublisher="Journal of Biogeography" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" pagination="863 - 891" publicationUrl="doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00580.x" refId="B52" refString="Inger, RF, Voris, HK, 2001. The biogeographical relations of the frogs and snakes of Sundaland. Journal of Biogeography 28: 863 - 891, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00580.x" title="The biogeographical relations of the frogs and snakes of Sundaland." url="doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00580.x" volume="28" year="2001">Inger and Voris 2001</bibRefCitation>
). However, toads are voracious opportunistic predators whose impact on a newly colonized ecosystem may take years to assess. Reported impacts include alteration of the food chain, detrimental effects on lizard population recruitment, extirpation of leaf litter amphibians and their tadpoles, reduction of amphibiophagous reptile and mammal densities, and even poisoning of human or canid predators (e.g.,
<bibRefCitation author="Trainor, CR" journalOrPublisher="University of Kansas Science Bulletin" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" refId="B87" refString="Trainor, CR, 2009. . Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294., 46 pp." title=". Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294" year="2009">Trainor 2009</bibRefCitation>
). We have recommended to government agencies that the advance of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
in Timor-Leste requires close monitoring and a popular campaign to avoid human injury. A second toad invasion appears to be underway concurrently by
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Gravenhorst" baseAuthorityYear="1829" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Ingerophrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="biporcatus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Ingerophrynus biporcatus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(formerly
<taxonomicName authorityName="Gravenhorst" authorityYear="1829" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Bufo" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="biporcatus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Bufo biporcatus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) on Roti Island, an island neighboring Timor (
<bibRefCitation author="Trainor, CR" journalOrPublisher="University of Kansas Science Bulletin" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" refId="B87" refString="Trainor, CR, 2009. . Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294., 46 pp." title=". Survey of a population of black-spined toad Bufo melanostictus in Timor-Leste: confirming identity, distribution, abundance and impacts of an invasive and toxic toad. Report by Charles Darwin University to AusAID, contract agreement no. 52294" year="2009">Trainor 2009</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="9" pageNumber="28">
A simple distinction between
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
can be made by looking at the morphology of features described above. Whereas
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
has an elongated parotoid gland that is about three times the size of the eye (
<figureCitation captionStart="Figure 3" captionStartId="F3" captionText="Figure 3. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Yellow morph from Same, Manufahi District (SVL 53 mm). Photo by Mark O'Shea." httpUri="https://binary.pensoft.net/fig/15832" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Fig. 3</figureCitation>
), the gland of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
is considerably larger (nearly five times the size of the eye) and shaped like an irregular rectangle with rounded corners. The cranial crests of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are relatively thin and topped with black, whereas those of
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Linnaeus" baseAuthorityYear="1758" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Rhinella" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animal" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="marina">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Rhinella marina</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are rather stout, surround the eye and are colored as the rest of the head.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection pageId="9" pageNumber="28" type="taxonomic comment">
<paragraph pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Taxonomic comment.</paragraph>
<paragraph pageId="9" pageNumber="28">
Prior to the revision of amphibian taxonomy by
<bibRefCitation author="Frost, DR" journalOrPublisher="Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History" pageId="34" pageNumber="53" pagination="1 - 370" publicationUrl="doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2" refId="B38" refString="Frost, DR, Grant, T, Faivovich, J, Bain, RH, Haas, A, Haddad, CFB, de Sa, RO, Channing, A, Wilkinson, M, Donnellan, SC, Raxworthy, CJ, Campbell, JA, Blotto, BL, Moler, P, Drewes, RC, Nussbaum, RA, Lynch, JD, Green, DM, Wheeler, WC, 2006. The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297: 1 - 370, doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2" title="The amphibian tree of life." url="doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2" volume="297" year="2006">Frost et al. (2006)</bibRefCitation>
, this species was known as
<taxonomicName authorityName="Schneider" authorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Bufo" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Bufo melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
<caption httpUri="https://binary.pensoft.net/fig/15832" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" start="Figure 3" startId="F3">
<paragraph pageId="9" pageNumber="28">
<emphasis bold="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Figure 3.</emphasis>
<taxonomicName baseAuthorityName="Schneider" baseAuthorityYear="1799" class="Amphibia" family="Bufonidae" genus="Duttaphrynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" lsidName="" order="Anura" pageId="9" pageNumber="28" phylum="Chordata" rank="species" species="melanostictus">
<emphasis italics="true" pageId="9" pageNumber="28">Duttaphrynus melanostictus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
. Yellow morph from Same, Manufahi District (SVL 53 mm). Photo by Mark
<normalizedToken originalValue="O’Shea">O'Shea</normalizedToken>
.
</paragraph>
</caption>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>
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