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<mods:title id="728E2933D0544B903804093A504394E8">Weevils, weevils, weevils everywhere *</mods:title>
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<paragraph id="8B813699FFB09936FF0ECAA46159C299" blockId="12.[151,330,1231,1257]" box="[151,330,1231,1257]" pageId="12" pageNumber="503">
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<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FF0ECAA46159C299" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[151,330,1231,1257]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB09936FF0ECAA46159C299" bold="true" box="[151,330,1231,1257]" pageId="12" pageNumber="503">Curculionidae</emphasis>
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</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB09936FF0ECB7162FDC114" blockId="12.[151,1436,1306,2012]" pageId="12" pageNumber="503">
With about 4 600 genera and 51 0 0 0 described species, the family 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FC58CB716474C344" box="[961,1127,1306,1332]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
is an order of magnitude larger than any other in weevils and comprises in excess of 80% of all weevil species. Its stupendous species richness is a principal factor in the large size of the Phytophaga and in fact of all 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FBDACB0164D5C3F4" box="[1091,1222,1386,1412]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Coleoptera</taxonomicName>
, thus in Haldane’s Inordinate Fondness for beetles. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FD85CBF962D1C3DC" box="[540,706,1426,1452]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
occur all over the world, from the arctic zone in the north to the subantarctic islands in the south, from beaches to mountain tops, from deserts to rainforests. They feed on virtually all plants, mainly angiosperms but also gymnosperms, pteridophytes, bryophytes and lichens and occasionally they even browse on algae and cyanobacteria. Unlike all other weevil families, curculionids also make extensive use of monocotyledons as hosts, the basal subfamilies 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FC60C85964A0C03C" box="[1017,1203,1586,1612]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Dryophthorinae">Dryophthorinae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FB6AC859658FC03C" box="[1267,1436,1586,1612]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
being predominantly associated with them and several taxa of other subfamilies as well. It is therefore likely that monocotyledons constitute the ancestral hosts of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FC8BC8E963ABC0EC" box="[786,952,1666,1692]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
and that they may have played a pivotal role in the diversification of the family (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB09936FDF3C8C1634EC0B4" author="Marvaldi" box="[618,861,1706,1732]" pageId="12" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E., Sequeira, A. S., O'Brien, C. W. &amp; Farrell, B. D. (2002) Molecular and morphological phylogenetics of weevils (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea): do niche shifts accompany diversification? Systematic Biology, 51, 761 - 785." type="journal article" year="2002">
Marvaldi 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB09936FD47C8C06302C0B4" box="[734,785,1707,1732]" italics="true" pageId="12" pageNumber="503">et al</emphasis>
. 2002
</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB09936FCF1C8C16457C0B4" author="Oberprieler" box="[872,1092,1706,1732]" pageId="12" pageNumber="518" refString="Oberprieler, R. G. (2004 b) Phylogeny and evolution of the Brachycerinae sensu lato (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Abstracts CD-ROM, XXII International Congress of Entomology, Brisbane, 15 - 21 August 2004, Australian Entomological Society, Brisbane." type="book chapter" year="2004" yearSuffix="b">Oberprieler 2004b</bibRefCitation>
). Curculionid larvae predominantly live an endophytic life inside all parts of plants, from underground roots to buds, flowers and seeds high in the canopy. However, several groups have also adopted a more ectophytic life, the larvae feeding exposed on leaves or in the soil on roots, and a few have evolved specialised life styles such as coprophagy (dung-feeding), myrmecophily and even predation.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFB09937FF5FC9196400C280" lastPageId="13" lastPageNumber="504" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" type="description">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB09937FF5FC91961D2C5DC" blockId="12.[151,1436,1306,2012]" lastBlockId="13.[151,1437,152,1704]" lastPageId="13" lastPageNumber="504" pageId="12" pageNumber="503">
The classification of 
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into natural subfamilies and tribes probably remains the largest outstanding problem in the higher classification of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB09936FD4FC9F16344C1C4" box="[726,855,1946,1972]" class="Insecta" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="12" pageNumber="503" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="order">Coleoptera</taxonomicName>
even half a century after 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB09936FB17C9F16543C1C4" author="Crowson" box="[1166,1360,1946,1972]" pageId="12" pageNumber="515" refString="Crowson, R. A. (1955). The Natural Classification of the Families of Coleoptera. N. Lloyd: London, UK. (E. W. Classey: Hampton, UK, reprint 1967, 214 pp.)." type="book" year="1955">Crowson (1955)</bibRefCitation>
wrote these words. A significant first step in addressing this problem was the identification of those taxa with plesiomorphic, pedotectal3 (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FE3ECEF162A4C6C4" author="Alonso-Zarazaga" box="[423,695,154,180]" pageId="13" pageNumber="514" refString="Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A. (2007) On terminology in Curculionoidea (Coleoptera). Boletin de la Sociedad entomologica Aragonesa, 40, 210." type="journal article" year="2007">Alonso-Zarazaga 2007</bibRefCitation>
) male genitalia by, mainly, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FB98CEF164C2C6C4" author="Morimoto" box="[1025,1233,154,180]" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Morimoto, K. (1962) Comparative morphology and phylogeny of the superfamily Cuculionoidea of Japan. III. Key to families, subfamilies, tribes and genera of the superfamily Curculionoidea of Japan excluding Scolytidae, Platypodidae and Cossoninae. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 12 (1), 21 - 66." type="journal article" year="1962">Morimoto (1962)</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FB47CEF16584C6C4" author="Kuschel" box="[1246,1431,154,180]" pageId="13" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1971) Entomology of the Aucklands and other islands south of New Zealand: Coleoptera: Curculionoidea. Pacific Insects Monograph, 27, 225 - 259." type="journal article" year="1971">Kuschel (1971)</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FF0ECEA9617CC6AC" author="Thompson" box="[151,367,194,220]" pageId="13" pageNumber="519" refString="Thompson, R. T. (1992) Observations on the morphology and classification of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) with a key to the major groups. Journal of natural History, 26, 835 - 891." type="journal article" year="1992">Thompson (1992)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FE2DCEA9628AC6AC" author="Zimmerman" box="[436,665,194,220]" pageId="13" pageNumber="520" refString="Zimmerman, E. C. (1993) Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Volume III - Nanophyidae, Rhynchophoridae, Erirhinidae, Curculionidae: Amycterinae, Literature consulted. CSIRO, Australia, 854 pp." type="book" year="1993">Zimmerman (1993</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FD32CEA962EBC6AC" author="Zimmerman" box="[683,760,194,220]" pageId="13" pageNumber="520" refString="Zimmerman, E. C. (1994 a) Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Volume I - Orthoceri, Anthribidae to Attelabidae. The Primitive Weevils. CSIRO, Australia, 741 pp." type="book" year="1994" yearSuffix="a">1994a</bibRefCitation>
). 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FC88CEA963FAC6AC" author="Thompson" box="[785,1001,194,220]" pageId="13" pageNumber="519" refString="Thompson, R. T. (1992) Observations on the morphology and classification of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) with a key to the major groups. Journal of natural History, 26, 835 - 891." type="journal article" year="1992">Thompson (1992)</bibRefCitation>
excluded all of these groups from 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF0ECE816153C774" box="[151,320,234,260]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
, as separate families 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD21CE816361C774" box="[696,882,234,260]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Dryophthoridae</taxonomicName>
(as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FC7ACE8164AAC774" box="[995,1209,234,260]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Rhynchophoridae</taxonomicName>
), 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB72CE816584C774" box="[1259,1431,234,260]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Brachyceridae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF0ECF79619BC75C" box="[151,392,274,300]" class="Insecta" family="Raymondionymidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Raymondionymidae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FE00CF79627AC75C" box="[409,617,274,300]" class="Insecta" family="Cryptolaryngidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cryptolaryngidae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FDE2CF7962ECC75C" box="[635,767,274,300]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Erirhinidae</taxonomicName>
and also 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FC19CF79640FC75C" box="[896,1052,274,300]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Platypodidae</taxonomicName>
, leaving in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB2DCF796549C75C" box="[1204,1370,274,300]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
only those taxa with the derived, pedal 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FDA6CF516261C724" box="[575,626,314,340]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">type</typeStatus>
of genitalia. In phylogenetic analyses (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FBCDCF5164EDC724" author="Kuschel" box="[1108,1278,314,340]" pageId="13" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1995) A phylogenetic classification of Curculionoidea to families and subfamilies. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington, 14, 5 - 33." type="journal article" year="1995">Kuschel 1995</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FA97CF516151C70C" author="Marvaldi" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. &amp; Morrone, J. J. (2000) Phylogenetic systematics of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea): a reappraisal based on larval and adult morphology. Insect Systematics and Evolution, 31, 43 - 58." type="journal article" year="2000">Marvaldi &amp; Morrone 2000</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FED4CF09622CC70C" author="Marvaldi" box="[333,575,354,380]" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E., Sequeira, A. S., O'Brien, C. W. &amp; Farrell, B. D. (2002) Molecular and morphological phylogenetics of weevils (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea): do niche shifts accompany diversification? Systematic Biology, 51, 761 - 785." type="journal article" year="2002">
Marvaldi 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB19937FE59CF0861E0C70C" box="[448,499,355,380]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">et al</emphasis>
. 2002
</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FDD3CF096397C70C" author="Morimoto" box="[586,900,354,380]" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Morimoto, K. &amp; Kojima, H. (2006) Larva of Desmidophorus crassus and the systematic position of the Desmidophorini (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Esakia, 46, 89 - 100." type="journal article" year="2006">Morimoto &amp; Kojima 2006</bibRefCitation>
), however, they are included as basal lineages in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF2ECFE16173C7D4" box="[183,352,394,420]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
, and Kuschel’s concept of the subfamilies 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FCFFCFE1641CC7D4" box="[870,1039,394,420]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FBD4CFE164E0C7D4" box="[1101,1267,394,420]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
includes both 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FF0ECFD960C6C7BC" box="[151,213,434,460]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">types</typeStatus>
of genitalia. Indeed, it remains to be demonstrated that the derived, pedal 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FBAECFD96479C7BC" box="[1079,1130,434,460]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">type</typeStatus>
of male genitalia, with no tectum remaining, has evolved only once in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD38CFB16358C784" box="[673,843,474,500]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
. In the expanded phylogenetic concept, the family 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF0ECC69612EC46C" box="[151,317,514,540]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
is delimited by the autapomorphic characters of, in the adult, geniculate antennae (apparently independently evolved also in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD94CC416297C434" box="[525,644,554,580]" class="Insecta" family="Brentidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Brentidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD0BCC416323C434" box="[658,816,554,580]" class="Insecta" family="Brentidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Nanophyinae">Nanophyinae</taxonomicName>
) and compact antennal club and, in the larva, 3–4 dorsal folds in the abdominal segments, a prothoracic position of the thoracic spiracle and the frontal sutures of the head blocked by a frontoepicranial bracon (bridge). A condition similar to the last also occurs in the brentid 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF6CCCC86171C4CC" box="[245,354,675,700]" class="Insecta" family="Ithyceridae" genus="Ithycerus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB19937FF6CCCC86171C4CC" box="[245,354,675,700]" italics="true" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">Ithycerus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and is the principal reason why this genus is often placed in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FBC5CCC96515C4CC" box="[1116,1286,674,700]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
; however, it differs from that in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FE11CCA1623DC494" box="[392,558,714,740]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
in that the frons almost completely encloses the antenna and the frontal sutures are not properly separated from the mandibular membranes (see also 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FBFDCC99650FC57C" author="Sanborne" box="[1124,1308,754,780]" pageId="13" pageNumber="518" refString="Sanborne, M. (1981) Biology of Ithycerus noveboracensis (Forster) (Coleoptera) and weevil phylogeny. Evolutionary Monographs, 4, 1 - 80." type="journal article" year="1981">Sanborne 1981</bibRefCitation>
) and it is probably not homologous. Other features typical of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD63CD7163B3C544" box="[762,928,794,820]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
(although perhaps not autapomorphic) are, in the larva, the postoccipital condyles and, in the adult, the dorsoventral flexion of the head (retractable onto the prosternum), a metendosternite with well separated anterior tendons and a spermatheca with well separated duct and gland.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB19937FF5FCDD16400C280" blockId="13.[151,1437,152,1704]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">
The number and concepts of subfamilies in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD57CDD16367C5A4" box="[718,884,954,980]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
remain chaotic and controversial, many of the 16 4 recognised in the recent generic catalogue (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FC9BCD8E649BC58F" author="Alonso-Zarazaga" box="[770,1160,997,1023]" pageId="13" pageNumber="514" refString="Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A. &amp; Lyal, C. H. C. (1999) A World Catalogue of Families and Genera of Curculionoidea (Insecta: Coleoptera) (excepting Scolytidae and Platypodidae). Entomopraxis, S. C. P., Spain, 315 pp." type="book" year="1999">Alonso-Zarazaga &amp; Lyal 1999</bibRefCitation>
) suffering from poor definitions, amalgamation of not evidently closely related genera and an over-inflated status in the broader picture of curculionid diversity. It will take considerable efforts of painstaking character analysis, both morphological and molecular, to identify and properly delimit the main lineages of particularly the higher 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF0ECAED612EC2D0" box="[151,317,1158,1184]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
(with the pedal 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FD90CAED622FC2D0" box="[521,572,1158,1184]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">type</typeStatus>
of male genitalia). The smaller number of subfamilies here outlined is meant as an indication of such possible major lineages, as yet mostly without firm concepts but grouping together traditional subfamilies that are difficult to separate as smaller units.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFB19937FF5FCA956274C0D8" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB19937FF5FCA9563C9C390" blockId="13.[151,1437,152,1704]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF64CA9661D4C367" box="[253,455,1277,1303]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Dryophthorinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB19937FF64CA9661D4C367" bold="true" box="[253,455,1277,1303]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">Dryophthorinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(fig. 15) are one of the few well-defined and evidently monophyletic curculionid subfamilies, identified by several clear synapomorphies (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FCABCB4D63CBC330" author="Kuschel" box="[818,984,1318,1344]" pageId="13" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1995) A phylogenetic classification of Curculionoidea to families and subfamilies. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington, 14, 5 - 33." type="journal article" year="1995">Kuschel 1995</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FC7DCB4D6530C330" author="Marvaldi" box="[996,1315,1318,1344]" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. &amp; Morrone, J. J. (2000) Phylogenetic systematics of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea): a reappraisal based on larval and adult morphology. Insect Systematics and Evolution, 31, 43 - 58." type="journal article" year="2000">Marvaldi &amp; Morrone 2000</bibRefCitation>
). It occurs throughout the world and includes the largest weevils known, and the majority of its approximately 1 200 species is associated with woody monocotyledons, especially palms and pandans. It is nowadays usually divided into five tribes, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FEF9CBF56218C3C8" box="[352,523,1438,1464]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Dryophthorini">Dryophthorini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD82CBF562C2C3C8" box="[539,721,1438,1464]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Stromboscerini">Stromboscerini</taxonomicName>
, Orthognathini, Cryptodermatini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB06CBF56572C3C8" box="[1183,1377,1438,1464]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Rhynchophorini">Rhynchophorini</taxonomicName>
, and their phylogenetic relationships are under study (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FD4ACBAD63DDC390" author="Kojima" box="[723,974,1478,1504]" pageId="13" pageNumber="516" refString="Kojima, H. &amp; Lyal, C. H. C. (2000) Phylogeny and evolution of Dryophthoridae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). P. 916. In: Gazzoni, D. L. (Ed.). Abstracts, XXI International Congress of Entomology, Foz de Iguassu 20 - 26 August 2000. Londrina, Embrapa Soja." type="journal article" year="2000">Kojima &amp; Lyal 2000</bibRefCitation>
).
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB19937FF5FCB856274C0D8" blockId="13.[151,1437,152,1704]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF67CB8661B1C077" box="[254,418,1517,1543]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Platypodinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB19937FF67CB8661B1C077" bold="true" box="[254,418,1517,1543]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">Platypodinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, counting about 1 500 species world-wide, are specialised woodborers whose larvae develop on ambrosia fungi cultivated in galleries in the wood. Usually related to bark beetles, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB7EC87D6575C040" box="[1255,1382,1558,1584]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
, and often treated as a distinct family, their phylogenetic position is still unclear but recent evidence from larval characters (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB19937FE86C80D61C2C0F0" author="Marvaldi" box="[287,465,1638,1664]" pageId="13" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1997) Higher level phylogeny of Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) based mainly on larval characters, with special reference to broad-nosed weevils. Cladistics, 13, 285 - 312." type="journal article" year="1997">Marvaldi 1997</bibRefCitation>
) and, more tentatively, also from molecular sequences places them at the base of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF0EC8E5612EC0D8" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[151,317,1678,1704]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
close to 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FE3FC8E56277C0D8" box="[422,612,1678,1704]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Dryophthorinae">Dryophthorinae</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFB19937FF0EC95D6166C19E" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" type="description">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB19937FF0EC95D6183C1EE" blockId="13.[151,1430,1846,2030]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">
3. the aedeagus featuring a distinct dorsal tectum and ventral pedon, also referred to as “orthocerous 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FB42C95D6518C13D" box="[1243,1291,1846,1869]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">type</typeStatus>
” of genitalia as they typically occur in the families with orthocerous (non-geniculate) antennae; in the pedal (“gonatocerous”) 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB19937FAF1C9346585C106" box="[1384,1430,1887,1910]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">type</typeStatus>
the tectum is absent
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB19937FF0EC9C46166C19E" blockId="13.[151,1430,1846,2030]" pageId="13" pageNumber="504">
4. exluding those placed in the separate families 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FD37C9C46358C1B6" box="[686,843,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Brachyceridae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FCCCC9C46413C1B6" box="[853,1024,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Dryophthoridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Dryophthoridae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB92C9C46495C1B6" box="[1035,1158,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Erirhinidae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FB09C9C4657BC1B6" box="[1168,1384,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Raymondionymidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Raymondionymidae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB19937FF22C9BC6166C19E" box="[187,373,2007,2030]" class="Insecta" family="Cryptolaryngidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="13" pageNumber="504" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Cryptolaryngidae</taxonomicName>
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<caption id="DF416611FFB29934FF0EC8DE63D1C180" httpUri="https://zenodo.org/record/274042/files/figure.png" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" targetBox="[205,1381,151,1705]" targetPageId="14">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB29934FF0EC8DE63D1C180" blockId="14.[151,1436,1717,2032]" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FF0EC8DE615AC0BA" bold="true" box="[151,329,1717,1738]" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">FIGURES 17–24.</emphasis>
17—an undescribed species of the southern-African endemic 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FC06C8DD640CC0BB" box="[927,1055,1718,1739]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" genus="Cryptolarynx" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FC06C8DD640CC0BB" box="[927,1055,1718,1739]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Cryptolarynx</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FBB5C8DD64AAC0BB" box="[1068,1209,1718,1739]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB5BC8DD655DC0BB" box="[1218,1358,1718,1739]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
) on leaf of its hostplant 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FEB5C8B861F9C098" box="[300,490,1747,1768]" class="Liliopsida" family="Iridaceae" genus="Moraea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asparagales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FEB5C8B8616BC098" box="[300,376,1747,1768]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Moraea</emphasis>
(Iridaceae)
</taxonomicName>
. 18—the localized South African 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FCA8C8B8641AC098" box="[817,1033,1747,1768]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Somatodes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="misumenus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FCA8C8B8641AC098" box="[817,1033,1747,1768]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Somatodes misumenus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB8EC8B864B7C098" box="[1047,1188,1747,1768]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB34C8B86531C098" box="[1197,1314,1747,1768]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">Cyclominae</taxonomicName>
) on a spathe of its larval hostplant, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FEF5C89A6221C175" box="[364,562,1776,1798]" class="Liliopsida" family="Iridaceae" genus="Bobartia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asparagales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FEF5C89A61D2C176" box="[364,449,1777,1798]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Bobartia</emphasis>
(Iridaceae)
</taxonomicName>
. 19 – the Australian aterpine 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FCD1C89A63E2C176" box="[840,1009,1777,1798]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Aesiotes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="leucurus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FCD1C89A63E2C176" box="[840,1009,1777,1798]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Aesiotes leucurus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FC64C89B6499C175" box="[1021,1162,1776,1797]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB0BC89B6514C175" box="[1170,1287,1776,1797]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">Cyclominae</taxonomicName>
) on a branch of its hostplant, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FE8FC9656212C153" box="[278,513,1806,1827]" class="Pinopsida" family="Cupressaceae" genus="Callitris" kingdom="Plantae" order="Pinales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FE8FC9656175C153" box="[278,358,1806,1827]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Callitris</emphasis>
(Cupressaceae)
</taxonomicName>
. 20 – 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FDA1C96562EAC153" box="[568,761,1806,1827]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Afroleptops" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF,CoL" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="coetzeei">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FDA1C96562EAC153" box="[568,761,1806,1827]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Afroleptops coetzeei</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FC9FC9656380C153" box="[774,915,1806,1827]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FC02C9656412C153" box="[923,1025,1806,1827]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
), a relict South African relative of the Australian leptopiines, feeding on a leaf of its 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FDB5C940627EC130" box="[556,621,1835,1856]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" genus="Protea" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FDB5C940627EC130" box="[556,621,1835,1856]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Protea</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
hostplant (
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FD4EC9406356C130" box="[727,837,1835,1856]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Proteaceae</taxonomicName>
). 21—the Australian 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB88C94064AEC130" box="[1041,1213,1835,1856]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Tranes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="lyterioides">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FB88C94064AEC130" box="[1041,1213,1835,1856]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Tranes lyterioides</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB53C9406544C130" box="[1226,1367,1835,1856]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FAF9C94060D4C12D" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
) on a male cone of the cycad 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FE74C922635CC12D" box="[493,847,1864,1886]" class="Cycadopsida" family="Zamiaceae" genus="Macrozamia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Cycadales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="communis">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FE74C92262DDC12E" box="[493,718,1865,1886]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Macrozamia communis</emphasis>
(Zamiaceae)
</taxonomicName>
, which it pollinates. 22—the long-snouted 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB6BC922658FC12E" box="[1266,1436,1865,1886]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Ludovix" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="fasciatus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FB6BC922658FC12E" box="[1266,1436,1865,1886]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Ludovix fasciatus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FF04C90D6139C10B" box="[157,298,1894,1915]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FEAAC90D61AEC10B" box="[307,445,1894,1915]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
) from South America, which lays its eggs inside the stems of the water hyacinth 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FB55C90D60F6C1E8" class="Liliopsida" family="Pontederiaceae" genus="Eichhornia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Commelinales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FB55C90D652BC10B" box="[1228,1336,1894,1915]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Eichhornia</emphasis>
(Pontederiaceae)
</taxonomicName>
, where its larvae feed on 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FE75C9E8622DC1E8" box="[492,574,1923,1944]" class="Insecta" family="Baissogryllidae" genus="Cornops" kingdom="Animalia" order="Orthoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FE75C9E8622DC1E8" box="[492,574,1923,1944]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Cornops</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
grasshopper eggs. 23—an undescribed 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FC55C9E86406C1E8" box="[972,1045,1923,1944]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Tychius" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FC55C9E86406C1E8" box="[972,1045,1923,1944]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Tychius</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
species (
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FBEAC9E86513C1E8" box="[1139,1280,1923,1944]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FA95C9E86585C1E8" box="[1292,1430,1923,1944]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
) from South Africa feeding on a shoot of Rooibos Tea (
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FD33C9CA6378C1C6" box="[682,875,1953,1974]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FD33C9CA6374C1C6" box="[682,871,1953,1974]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Aspalathus" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="species" species="linearis">Aspalathus linearis</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FCE8C9CB63DDC1C5" box="[881,974,1952,1973]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Fabaceae</taxonomicName>
), in whose flower buds its larvae develop. 24— the South African hyperine 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FE34C9D56297C1A3" box="[429,644,1982,2003]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Frontodes" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="brevicornis">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FE34C9D56297C1A3" box="[429,644,1982,2003]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Frontodes brevicornis</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FD0DC9D56332C1A3" box="[660,801,1982,2003]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
: 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FCB5C9D563A6C1A3" box="[812,949,1982,2003]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
) on its host, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB29934FBA4C9D5656BC1A3" box="[1085,1400,1982,2003]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Ulmaceae" genus="Chaetacme" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Rosales" pageId="14" pageNumber="505" phylum="Magnoliophyta" rank="species" species="aristata">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB29934FBA4C9D564EEC1A3" box="[1085,1277,1982,2003]" italics="true" pageId="14" pageNumber="505">Chaetacme aristata</emphasis>
(Ulmaceae)
</taxonomicName>
, on whose leaves its exposed larvae feed and spin mesh-like silken cocoons for pupation
</paragraph>
</caption>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFB39935FF5FCEF36418C19E" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB39935FF5FCEF361CCC5DA" blockId="15.[151,1437,151,1860]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF62CEFC61A2C6C1" box="[251,433,151,177]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FF62CEFC61A2C6C1" bold="true" box="[251,433,151,177]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Brachycerinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, here treated in a wider sense that includes 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC35CEF36432C6C2" box="[940,1057,152,178]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erirhinini">Erirhinini</taxonomicName>
, Ocladiini, Cryptolaryngini (fig. 17) and Raymondionymini (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FE7DCEAB62D1C6AA" author="Oberprieler" box="[484,706,192,218]" pageId="15" pageNumber="518" refString="Oberprieler, R. G. (2004 b) Phylogeny and evolution of the Brachycerinae sensu lato (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Abstracts CD-ROM, XXII International Congress of Entomology, Brisbane, 15 - 21 August 2004, Australian Entomological Society, Brisbane." type="book chapter" year="2004" yearSuffix="b">Oberprieler 2004b</bibRefCitation>
), combine more typical curculionid taxa with pedotectal male genitalia and number about 1 200 species. The difficulty of separating the flightless African 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB55CE836570C772" box="[1228,1379,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Brachycerini">Brachycerini</taxonomicName>
(fig. 16) from traditional 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE1CCF7B61E4C75A" box="[389,503,272,298]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erirhinini">Erirhinini</taxonomicName>
is exemplified foremost by the Ocladiini (
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FC70CF7B64FCC759" box="[1001,1263,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC70CF7B6445C759" ID-CoL="8HN96" box="[1001,1110,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" genus="Ocladius" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Ocladius</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FBF8CF7B64FCC759" ID-CoL="8HRYG" box="[1121,1263,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" genus="Tetracyphus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Tetracyphus</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB67CF7B60AFC721" ID-CoL="8HHG5" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" genus="Desmidophorus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FB67CF7B60AFC721" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Desmidophorus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), which agree with the former group in genital and larval characters (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FC7ACF5364B5C722" author="Thompson" box="[995,1190,312,338]" pageId="15" pageNumber="519" refString="Thompson, R. T. (1992) Observations on the morphology and classification of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) with a key to the major groups. Journal of natural History, 26, 835 - 891." type="journal article" year="1992">Thompson 1992</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FB2BCF536545C722" author="Kuschel" box="[1202,1366,312,338]" pageId="15" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1995) A phylogenetic classification of Curculionoidea to families and subfamilies. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington, 14, 5 - 33." type="journal article" year="1995">Kuschel 1995</bibRefCitation>
, Marvaldi 2000, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FEBBCF0B624AC70A" author="Morimoto" box="[290,601,352,378]" pageId="15" pageNumber="517" refString="Morimoto, K. &amp; Kojima, H. (2006) Larva of Desmidophorus crassus and the systematic position of the Desmidophorini (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Esakia, 46, 89 - 100." type="journal article" year="2006">Morimoto &amp; Kojima 2006</bibRefCitation>
) but with many genera of traditional 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB97CF0B6481C70A" box="[1038,1170,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Erirhininae">Erirhininae</taxonomicName>
(e.g., 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FB42CF0B6290C7D1" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB42CF0B658BC709" ID-CoL="8HC9F" box="[1243,1432,352,377]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" genus="Afghanocryptus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Afghanocryptus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF0ECFE3611FC7D1" box="[151,268,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" genus="Aonychus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Aonychus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE8ECFE361A3C7D1" box="[279,432,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" genus="Arthrostenus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Arthrostenus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE25CFE36239C7D1" box="[444,554,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" genus="Hypselus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Hypselus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FDAFCFE36290C7D1" box="[566,643,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Erirhinidae" genus="Tadius" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Tadius</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
) in having a setose groove below the antennal insertion and a swollen or raised, basal elytral locking mechanism. In fact, a preliminary phylogenetic analysis of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB6ACFDB658FC7BA" box="[1267,1436,432,458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
in this sense on morphological characters (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FD15CFB36374C782" author="Oberprieler" box="[652,871,472,498]" pageId="15" pageNumber="518" refString="Oberprieler, R. G. (2004 b) Phylogeny and evolution of the Brachycerinae sensu lato (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Abstracts CD-ROM, XXII International Congress of Entomology, Brisbane, 15 - 21 August 2004, Australian Entomological Society, Brisbane." type="book chapter" year="2004" yearSuffix="b">Oberprieler 2004b</bibRefCitation>
) suggests that the deepest split may lie between the New-World 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FEC1CC6B61E1C46A" box="[344,498,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Tanysphyrini">Tanysphyrini</taxonomicName>
(= 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FDB8CC6B62ACC46A" box="[545,703,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Stenopelmini">Stenopelmini</taxonomicName>
) and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC9CCC6B6364C46A" box="[773,887,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erirhinini">Erirhinini</taxonomicName>
+ Ocladiini + Cryptolaryngini + Byrsopini + 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF0ECC43613DC432" box="[151,302,552,578]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Brachycerini">Brachycerini</taxonomicName>
(Raymondionymini not included). 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FD57CC436364C432" box="[718,887,552,578]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
are also predominantly associated with monocotyledons, the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FED6CC3B61FAC41A" box="[335,489,592,618]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Tanysphyrini">Tanysphyrini</taxonomicName>
with aquatic Alismatales and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCD3CC3B63E7C41A" ID-CoL="ZC" box="[842,1012,592,618]" class="Liliopsida" kingdom="Plantae" order="Commelinales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Commelinales</taxonomicName>
(some also with aquatic grasses and ferns), the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE8FCC13619BC4E2" box="[278,392,632,658]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erirhinini">Erirhinini</taxonomicName>
and Ocladiini with Poales (a few with dicotyledons or mosses) and the Cryptolaryngini, Byrsopini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FEDDCCCB61C8C4CA" box="[324,475,672,698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Brachycerini">Brachycerini</taxonomicName>
with geophytic 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FD02CCCB6339C4CA" ID-CoL="SP" box="[667,810,672,698]" class="Liliopsida" kingdom="Plantae" order="Asparagales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="order">Asparagales</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCFDCCCB63D3C4CA" box="[868,960,672,698]" class="Liliopsida" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Plantae" order="Liliales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Magnoliophyta" rank="order">Liliales</taxonomicName>
. Further studies, especially of molecular characters, are required to elucidate the precise composition of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCE7CCA36434C492" box="[894,1063,712,738]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
and the relationships among its subgroups. The subfamily may be paraphyletic in that some groups of higher 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB87CC9B64D7C57A" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[1054,1220,752,778]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
(with a pedal 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFB39935FAF3CC9B658EC57A" box="[1386,1437,752,778]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">type</typeStatus>
of genitalia) may have derived from it, such as Bagoini and also 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC0CCD736402C542" ID-CoL="8JRPN" box="[917,1041,792,818]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
. The latter were included in Kuschel’s (1995) concept of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE20CD2B6271C52A" box="[441,610,832,858]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
and share conspicuous characters such as deciduous mandibular cusps and metatibial corbels, although other phylogenetic studies (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FCC2CD03641EC5F2" author="Marvaldi" box="[859,1037,872,898]" pageId="15" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1997) Higher level phylogeny of Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) based mainly on larval characters, with special reference to broad-nosed weevils. Cladistics, 13, 285 - 312." type="journal article" year="1997">Marvaldi 1997</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FB83CD03651FC5F2" author="Marvaldi" box="[1050,1292,872,898]" pageId="15" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E., Sequeira, A. S., O'Brien, C. W. &amp; Farrell, B. D. (2002) Molecular and morphological phylogenetics of weevils (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea): do niche shifts accompany diversification? Systematic Biology, 51, 761 - 785." type="journal article" year="2002">
Marvaldi 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FB14CD0364D2C5F1" box="[1165,1217,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">et al</emphasis>
. 2002
</bibRefCitation>
) place them in a clade with 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FED3CDFB61C8C5DA" box="[330,475,912,938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">Cyclominae</taxonomicName>
.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB39935FF5FCDD3638CC024" blockId="15.[151,1437,151,1860]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF64CDDC6182C5A1" box="[253,401,951,977]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FF64CDDC6182C5A1" bold="true" box="[253,401,951,977]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Cyclominae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are a ‘subfamily of convenience’ for now, sharing no obvious synapomorphic characters. It combines several southern-hemisphere taxa of mostly large weevils, namely the African Cyclomini (fig. 18), Hipporhinini and Gronopini, the Australian 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCB6CA6363A6C252" box="[815,949,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Amycterini">Amycterini</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC61CA636449C252" box="[1016,1114,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Aterpini">Aterpini</taxonomicName>
and the more widespread Rhythirrinini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FEE4CA596219C23C" box="[381,522,1074,1100]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Listroderini">Listroderini</taxonomicName>
, together numbering more than 1 0 0 0 species. The Diabathrariini5 and Gonipterini, included in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE5DCA316241C204" box="[452,594,1114,1140]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">Cyclominae</taxonomicName>
by 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FD1ECA31635DC204" author="Morrone" box="[647,846,1114,1140]" pageId="15" pageNumber="518" refString="Morrone, J. J. (1997 a) Nomenclatural notes on the subfamily Cyclominae (Coleoptera: Curclionidae. Acta entomologica Chilena, 21, 101 - 102." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="a">Morrone (1997a</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FCC7CA31637DC204" author="Morrone" box="[862,878,1114,1140]" pageId="15" pageNumber="518" refString="Morrone, J. J. (1997 b) The impact of cladistics in weevil classification with a new scheme of families and subfamilies (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Trends in Entomology, 1, 129 - 136." type="journal article" year="1997" yearSuffix="b">b</bibRefCitation>
) and the latter placed close to some of these groups in the phylogenetic analyses of 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FDF5CAE96323C2EC" author="Marvaldi" box="[620,816,1154,1180]" pageId="15" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1997) Higher level phylogeny of Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) based mainly on larval characters, with special reference to broad-nosed weevils. Cladistics, 13, 285 - 312." type="journal article" year="1997">Marvaldi (1997)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FCF5CAE96464C2EC" box="[876,1143,1154,1180]" pageId="15" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E., Sequeira, A. S., O'Brien, C. W. &amp; Farrell, B. D. (2002) Molecular and morphological phylogenetics of weevils (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea): do niche shifts accompany diversification? Systematic Biology, 51, 761 - 785." type="journal article">
Marvaldi 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FC78CAE86405C2EC" box="[993,1046,1155,1180]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">et al</emphasis>
. (2002)
</bibRefCitation>
, probably do not belong here but rather in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FEE8CAC16209C2B4" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[369,538,1194,1220]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
, judging by the endophytic habits of the former and the long rostrum (and also likely endophytic larvae) of several gonipterines. Features of the ovipositor group Hipporhinini, Gronopini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FED5CA9161C1C364" box="[332,466,1274,1300]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Amycterini">Amycterini</taxonomicName>
together, and possibly Cyclomini, Rhythirrinini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FBD5CA9164C5C364" box="[1100,1238,1274,1300]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Listroderini">Listroderini</taxonomicName>
are also related, while 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF46CB496152C34C" box="[223,321,1314,1340]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Aterpini">Aterpini</taxonomicName>
in their current composition are a mixed group and may include elements of other subfamilies, such as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF6ACB21617CC314" box="[243,367,1354,1380]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
. Host associations are poorly known in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCD9CB2163C2C314" box="[832,977,1354,1380]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cyclominae">Cyclominae</taxonomicName>
, but the larvae generally develop in the soil feeding on or in roots and underground stems. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FD69CB196365C3FC" box="[752,886,1394,1420]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Amycterini">Amycterini</taxonomicName>
and Cyclomini appear to be largely associated with monocotyledons but the other groups with dicotyledons. The larvae of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FBBDCBF16495C3C4" box="[1060,1158,1434,1460]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Aterpini">Aterpini</taxonomicName>
mostly tunnel in roots, trunks, stems, shoots and inflorescences of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FD30CBA96337C3AC" ID-CoL="D48" box="[681,804,1474,1500]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Myrtaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Myrtales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Myrtaceae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCFCCBA963F7C3AC" ID-CoL="F4J" box="[869,996,1474,1500]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Proteaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Proteales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Proteaceae</taxonomicName>
but some (
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FBEBCBA864C9C3AC" box="[1138,1242,1475,1500]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FBEBCBA864C5C3AC" ID-CoL="8HC8X" box="[1138,1238,1475,1500]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Aesiotes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Aesiotes</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
fig. 19) also in conifers, and, unlike the other tribes, the females of at least some genera use their rostrum for preparing oviposition sites. Detailed studies, especially of the larvae, are required to properly define both the subfamily and its constituent tribes and to establish monophyletic groupings.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFB39935FF5FC8096418C19E" blockId="15.[151,1437,151,1860]" lastBlockId="15.[151,1436,1927,2030]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF64C809616CC00C" ID-CoL="8JRPN" box="[253,383,1634,1660]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FF64C809616CC00C" bold="true" box="[253,383,1634,1660]" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Entiminae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(fig. 20), with more than 12 0 0 0 species described, are the largest group of weevils and spectacularly successful not only in diversity but also in distribution and abundance, including many serious agricultural pests. They are characterised by a short, broad rostrum with adelognathous mouthparts (the prementum closing the buccal cavity from beneath), mandibles bearing deciduous cusps that assist the teneral weevil to escape form its earthen pupal cell but then break off, and, in the larva, a cushion-like antennal sensorium. The last character appears to constitute a good synapomorphy for 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FC47C9416449C134" ID-CoL="8JRPN" box="[990,1114,1834,1860]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
, whereas the other two also 5. limited to the African genera 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FE63C9EC6304C1EE" box="[506,791,1927,1950]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE63C9EC6266C1EE" ID-CoL="8HD27" box="[506,629,1927,1950]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Aphanonyx" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Aphanonyx</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FDE7C9EC6304C1EE" ID-CoL="8HHGN" box="[638,791,1927,1950]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Diabathrarius" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Diabathrarius</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FCD3C9EC63FDC1EE" ID-CoL="8HNFD" box="[842,1006,1927,1950]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Onychogymnus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FCD3C9EC63FDC1EE" box="[842,1006,1927,1950]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Onychogymnus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(which develop in seed pods of legumes such as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FE86C9C4617CC1B6" ID-CoL="9CLZR" box="[287,367,1967,1990]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Fabaceae" genus="Schotia" kingdom="Plantae" order="Fabales" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FE86C9C4617CC1B6" box="[287,367,1967,1990]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Schotia</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
), and to exclude the unrelated, wood-boring Australian 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FB9DC9C46574C1B6" box="[1028,1383,1967,1990]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB9DC9C4647DC1B6" ID-CoL="8HD9B" box="[1028,1134,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Aromagis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Aromagis</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FBE6C9C464CBC1B6" ID-CoL="8HDDS" box="[1151,1240,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Atelicus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Atelicus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FB72C9C46574C1B6" ID-CoL="8HL6L" box="[1259,1383,1967,1990]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Kershawcis" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Kershawcis</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFB39935FF22C9BC6177C19E" ID-CoL="8HRJX" box="[187,356,2007,2030]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Strongylorhinus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="15" pageNumber="506" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFB39935FF22C9BC6177C19E" box="[187,356,2007,2030]" italics="true" pageId="15" pageNumber="506">Strongylorhinus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, whose affinities are unclear (see also 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFB39935FC98C9BC63C3C19E" author="Zimmerman" box="[769,976,2007,2030]" pageId="15" pageNumber="520" refString="Zimmerman, E. C. (1994 a) Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Volume I - Orthoceri, Anthribidae to Attelabidae. The Primitive Weevils. CSIRO, Australia, 741 pp." type="book" year="1994" yearSuffix="a">Zimmerman 1994a</bibRefCitation>
: 677)
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFAC992AFF0ECEF36139C072" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" type="description">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAC992AFF0ECEF3629BC432" blockId="16.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">
occur in other groups. The similar deciduous mandibular cusps in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFC30CEF36441C6C2" box="[937,1106,152,178]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
are interpreted as a parallel development by 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFEC4CEAB6221C6AA" author="Thompson" box="[349,562,192,218]" pageId="16" pageNumber="519" refString="Thompson, R. T. (1992) Observations on the morphology and classification of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) with a key to the major groups. Journal of natural History, 26, 835 - 891." type="journal article" year="1992">Thompson (1992)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFDF6CEAB6327C6AA" author="Marvaldi" box="[623,820,192,218]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1997) Higher level phylogeny of Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) based mainly on larval characters, with special reference to broad-nosed weevils. Cladistics, 13, 285 - 312." type="journal article" year="1997">Marvaldi (1997)</bibRefCitation>
, but their homology or not with those of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFABDCEAB658FC6AA" box="[1316,1436,192,218]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
remains to be convincingly established. Many genera also bear corbels on the hind tibiae like they occur in a number of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEB8CF7B61DDC75A" box="[289,462,272,298]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
; again the homology of this feature remains to be elucidated. Adult 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFABDCF7B658FC75A" box="[1316,1436,272,298]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
mostly feed on leaves and young shoots and their larvae on roots in the soil, but host associations tend to be very broad and loose. The classification of the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFD59CF0B632BC70A" box="[704,824,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Entiminae">Entiminae</taxonomicName>
into natural tribes and subtribes is chaotic, as many as 55 recognised in the generic catalogue of 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFD30CFE36436C7D2" author="Alonso-Zarazaga" box="[681,1061,392,418]" pageId="16" pageNumber="514" refString="Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A. &amp; Lyal, C. H. C. (1999) A World Catalogue of Families and Genera of Curculionoidea (Insecta: Coleoptera) (excepting Scolytidae and Platypodidae). Entomopraxis, S. C. P., Spain, 315 pp." type="book" year="1999">Alonso-Zarazaga &amp; Lyal (1999)</bibRefCitation>
and many based on Palaearctic genera with no clear relationships to southern-hemisphere forms. The recognition of a smaller number of more distinct groups as tribes by 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFD86CFB362E1C782" author="Thompson" box="[543,754,472,498]" pageId="16" pageNumber="519" refString="Thompson, R. T. (1992) Observations on the morphology and classification of weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) with a key to the major groups. Journal of natural History, 26, 835 - 891." type="journal article" year="1992">Thompson (1992)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFCB4CFB363F4C782" author="Marvaldi" box="[813,999,472,498]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1997) Higher level phylogeny of Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) based mainly on larval characters, with special reference to broad-nosed weevils. Cladistics, 13, 285 - 312." type="journal article" year="1997">Marvaldi (1997</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFC6DCFB36423C782" author="Marvaldi" box="[1012,1072,472,498]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="Marvaldi, A. E. (1998) Larvae of Entiminae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): tribal diagnoses and phylogenetic key, with a proposal about natural groups within Entimini. Entomologica scandinavica, 29, 89 - 98." type="journal article" year="1998">1998</bibRefCitation>
) — 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFBFCCFB364C3C782" box="[1125,1232,472,498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Alophini">Alophini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB44CFB3658BC782" box="[1245,1432,472,498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Pachyrhynchini">Pachyrhynchini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFF0ECC6B6142C46A" box="[151,337,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Ectemnorhinini">Ectemnorhinini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEC6CC6B61AFC46A" box="[351,444,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Sitonini">Sitonini</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFE63CC6B6273C46A" box="[506,608,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Entimini">Entimini</taxonomicName>
— seems a more meaningful approach but needs to be expanded to cover the entire diversity of the subfamily.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAC992AFF5FCC3B6139C072" blockId="16.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">
The subfamily 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEE1CC2461E4C419" box="[376,503,591,617]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAC992AFEE1CC2461E4C419" bold="true" box="[376,503,591,617]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">Molytinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
(fig. 21) as treated here combines the majority of the wood-boring taxa in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFAFFCC3B6106C4E2" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
. Its traditional, narrow concept was first expanded by 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFC16CC136454C4E2" author="Kuschel" box="[911,1095,632,658]" pageId="16" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1987) The subfamily Molytinae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): general notes and descriptions of new taxa from New Zealand and Chile. New Zealand Entomologist, 9, 11 - 29." type="journal article" year="1987">Kuschel (1987)</bibRefCitation>
, who also commented on the difficulty of separating the group from especially the traditional 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFC05CCCB6463C4CA" box="[924,1136,672,698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB34CCCB652BC4CA" box="[1197,1336,672,698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
. Indeed, the “ 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFF57CCA361BBC492" box="[206,424,712,738]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
” are a mixture of taxa that have in common only a pronounced prosternal canal into which the rostrum folds in repose, but such a canal also occurs in other groups (e.g., 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFBE4CC9B653BC57A" box="[1149,1320,752,778]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Brachycerinae">Brachycerinae</taxonomicName>
) and is in fact quite differently constructed in different groups of “ 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFCB7CD736418C542" box="[814,1035,792,818]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
”. 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFBB8CD7364CBC542" author="Kuschel" box="[1057,1240,792,818]" pageId="16" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1987) The subfamily Molytinae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): general notes and descriptions of new taxa from New Zealand and Chile. New Zealand Entomologist, 9, 11 - 29." type="journal article" year="1987">Kuschel (1987)</bibRefCitation>
moved the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFAFACD7360CEC52A" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Ithyporini">Ithyporini</taxonomicName>
from 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEBCCD2B61EAC52A" box="[293,505,832,858]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
to 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFD86CD2B6289C52A" box="[543,666,832,858]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
, and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFD41CD2B63DFC52A" author="Zimmerman" box="[728,972,832,858]" pageId="16" pageNumber="520" refString="Zimmerman, E. C. (1994 a) Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Volume I - Orthoceri, Anthribidae to Attelabidae. The Primitive Weevils. CSIRO, Australia, 741 pp." type="book" year="1994" yearSuffix="a">Zimmerman (1994a)</bibRefCitation>
afforded subfamily rank to Camptorhinini and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFE95CD03618EC5F2" box="[268,413,872,898]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Aedemonini">Aedemonini</taxonomicName>
(as Mechistocerinae), pointing out the affinity of the latter with 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB7ACD03654DC5F2" box="[1251,1374,872,898]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
, and transferred several other genera from 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFDC6CDFB6320C5DA" box="[607,819,912,938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
to 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFCC7CDFB63C8C5DA" box="[862,987,912,938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
. Other features, such as sclerolepidia (Lyal 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAC992AFF42CDD3611DC5A1" box="[219,270,952,977]" italics="true" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">et al</emphasis>
. 2006), are also useful in distinguishing the disparate elements of “ 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB80CDD364E4C5A2" box="[1049,1271,952,978]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cryptorhynchinae">Cryptorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
”. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFA92CDD360C1C58A" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Cryptorhynchini">Cryptorhynchini</taxonomicName>
in the narrow sense may be identified by a particular 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFAC992AFCD8CD8B6367C58A" box="[833,884,992,1018]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">type</typeStatus>
of rostral canal (ending in a mesosternal receptacle) and, like the others, appear to be just another specialised group of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB94CA63649AC252" box="[1037,1161,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
. Also 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB41CA63657EC252" box="[1240,1389,1032,1058]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Psepholacini">Psepholacini</taxonomicName>
are distinct from 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEAACA5B61E6C23A" box="[307,501,1072,1098]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Cryptorhynchini">Cryptorhynchini</taxonomicName>
and approach 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFD06CA5B6308C23A" box="[671,795,1072,1098]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
in their adaptations to boring into wood with the entire body, hence reducing the rostrum and developing stout denticles on the tibiae. The boundary is also hazy between 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFE98CAEB616AC2EA" box="[257,377,1152,1178]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
and traditional 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFDACCAEB629CC2EA" box="[565,655,1152,1178]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Lixinae">Lixinae</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFD06CAEB635CC2EA" author="Marshall" box="[671,847,1152,1178]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="Marshall, G. A. K. (1932) Notes on the Hylobiinae (Col., Curc.). Annals and Magazine of natural History, (10), 9, 341 - 355." type="journal article" year="1932">
<collectingCountry id="F3297609FFAC992AFD06CAEB631AC2EA" box="[671,777,1152,1178]" name="Marshall Islands" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">Marshall</collectingCountry>
1932
</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFCC5CAEB63FCC2EA" author="Aslam" box="[860,1007,1152,1178]" pageId="16" pageNumber="515" refString="Aslam, N. A. (1963) On the Indo-Pakistan Cleoninae and Hylobiinae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), 13 (3), 1 - 66." type="journal article" year="1963">Aslam 1963</bibRefCitation>
), and additional problems are posed by a large and poorly studied fauna of microphthalmic or eyeless species in leaf litter that are difficult to assign to any of the traditional subfamilies (e.g., Nesiobiini). Also 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFC7FCABB6466C29A" box="[998,1141,1232,1258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Mesoptiliini">Mesoptiliini</taxonomicName>
appear to belong here, although their larvae display significant agreements with those of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFC3DCA936433C362" box="[932,1056,1272,1298]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFBB6CA9364F6C362" author="Lekander" box="[1071,1253,1272,1298]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="Lekander, B. (1967) A description of two Magdalis larvae (Col. Curc.) and a comparison between these and the Scolytus larvae (Col. Scol.). Entomologisk Tidskrift, 88 (3 - 4), 123 - 129." type="journal article" year="1967">Lekander 1967</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFB6BCA93657CC362" author="May" box="[1266,1391,1272,1298]" pageId="16" pageNumber="517" refString="May, B. M. (1993) Larvae of Curculionoidea (Insecta: Coleoptera): a systematic overview. Fauna of New Zealand, 28, 1 - 1221." type="journal article" year="1993">
<date id="FF801059FFAC992AFB6BCA93657CC362" box="[1266,1391,1272,1298]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" value="1993-05">May 1993</date>
</bibRefCitation>
). In the widened sense as used here, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFD88CB4B629AC34A" box="[529,649,1312,1338]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
comprise around 10 0 0 0 species worldwide. Their larvae predominantly develop in dying wood, but several also attack living stems, trunks and roots. The adults nearly always have a stout uncus (spine) at the end of their tibiae, evidently an adaptation for clinging onto wood and also aiding the female in drilling oviposition holes with her rostrum. Host associations are mainly with dicotyledons, but several taxa are also associated with monocotyledons (especially palms) and gymnosperms (conifers and cycads).
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
<subSubSection id="C3246512FFAC9928FF5FC87B64FFC57A" lastPageId="18" lastPageNumber="509" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" type="reference_group">
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAC992BFF5FC87B62ABC4E2" blockId="16.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastBlockId="17.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastPageId="17" lastPageNumber="508" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">
The 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAC992AFF65C8646182C059" bold="true" box="[252,401,1551,1577]" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFF65C864619FC059" box="[252,396,1551,1577]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
here treated as a separate subfamily, are nonetheless difficult to distinguish from 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFACBC87B60C7C022" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
. Groups such as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFE3FC853623FC022" box="[422,556,1592,1618]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Trypetidini">Trypetidini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFDA2C853647FC022" authority="Phoenicobatini and Nesiobiini" authorityName="Phoenicobatini and Nesiobiini" box="[571,1132,1592,1618]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Amorphocerini" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Amorphocerini, Phoenicobatini and Nesiobiini</taxonomicName>
, traditionally included in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFF0EC80B6132C00A" box="[151,289,1632,1658]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
, combine features of both and are more suitably treated as belonging in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFB16C80B6519C00A" box="[1167,1290,1632,1658]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
, leaving the concept of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEB9C8E361B4C0D2" box="[288,423,1672,1698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
more or less restricted to forms with deep mandibular sockets (limited below by a prominent hypostomal tooth), large proventricular grinding plates, a short, broad aedeagus and a strongly asymmetrical male sternite 9. 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFE6EC8B362BEC082" author="Kuschel" box="[503,685,1752,1778]" pageId="16" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1995) A phylogenetic classification of Curculionoidea to families and subfamilies. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington, 14, 5 - 33." type="journal article" year="1995">Kuschel (1995)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFD7CC8B363CFC082" box="[741,988,1752,1778]" pageId="16" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G., Leschen, R. A. B. &amp; Zimmerman, E. C. (2000) Platypodidae under scrutiny. Invertebrate Taxonomy, 14, 771 - 806." type="journal article">
Kuschel 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAC992AFCD5C8B36393C081" box="[844,896,1752,1777]" italics="true" pageId="16" pageNumber="507">et al</emphasis>
. (2000)
</bibRefCitation>
listed some other apomorphic characters for the group, but their phylogenetic significance is not clear and many appear to be adaptations to a life in tight spaces under bark or deep in moist wood. The precise composition of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFBDEC94364DDC132" box="[1095,1230,1832,1858]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
is therefore still unclear. 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFF62C93B6264C11A" author="Alonso-Zarazaga" box="[251,631,1872,1898]" pageId="16" pageNumber="514" refString="Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A. &amp; Lyal, C. H. C. (1999) A World Catalogue of Families and Genera of Curculionoidea (Insecta: Coleoptera) (excepting Scolytidae and Platypodidae). Entomopraxis, S. C. P., Spain, 315 pp." type="book" year="1999">Alonso-Zarazaga &amp; Lyal (1999)</bibRefCitation>
listed 18 tribes but 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAC992AFCFCC93B6408C11A" author="Kuschel" box="[869,1051,1872,1898]" pageId="16" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1992) Reappraisal of the Baltic Amber Curculionoidea described by E. Voss. Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch-Palaontologischen Institut der Universitat Hamburg, 73, 191 - 215." type="journal article" year="1992">Kuschel (1992)</bibRefCitation>
recognised only five, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFABCC93B60DBC1E2" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Onycholipini">Onycholipini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFF4CC9136148C1E2" box="[213,347,1912,1938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Rhyncolini">Rhyncolini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEF1C91361F3C1E2" box="[360,480,1912,1938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Cossonini">Cossonini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFE74C9136262C1E2" box="[493,625,1912,1938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Dryotribini">Dryotribini</taxonomicName>
(as Cotasterini) and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFCF4C91363E8C1E2" box="[877,1019,1912,1938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Pentarthrini">Pentarthrini</taxonomicName>
; however, their concepts remain to be confirmed and clarified. Others are even more obscure, such as the Araucariini, which are often regarded as close relatives of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFEFBC9A361CDC192" box="[354,478,1992,2018]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
or the “link” between 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFD7CC9A3637FC192" box="[741,876,1992,2018]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAC992AFC3DC9A36433C192" box="[932,1056,1992,2018]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="16" pageNumber="507" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
but most likely an artificial concept. The six included genera (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFD93CEF362A2C6C2" author="Kuschel" box="[522,689,152,178]" pageId="17" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1966) A cossonine genus with bark-beetle habits, with remarks on relationships and biogeography (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). New Zealand Journal of Science, 9, 3 - 29." type="journal article" year="1966">Kuschel 1966</bibRefCitation>
) are held together only by the feature of stout, socketed tibial spines but display numerous differences and also similarities with other genera (e.g., 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFBE1CEAB6536C6A9" ID-CoL="8HCN4" box="[1144,1317,192,217]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Amorphocerus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFBE1CEAB6536C6A9" box="[1144,1317,192,217]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Amorphocerus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
with 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFAFFCEAB60C8C771" ID-CoL="8HPTP" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Porthetes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFAFFCEAB60C8C771" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Porthetes</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, together placed in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE58CE83622AC772" box="[449,569,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDC6CE836304C772" box="[607,791,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Amorphocerini" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="518" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Amorphocerini</taxonomicName>
), and the Australian / 
<collectingCountry id="F3297609FFAD992BFB8CCE8364A2C772" box="[1045,1201,232,258]" name="New Zealand" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">New Zealand</collectingCountry>
genera (
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFA8FCE8360D3C759" ID-CoL="8HGPN" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Coptocorynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFA8FCE8360D3C759" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Coptocorynus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFF49CF7B61E2C759" box="[208,497,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF49CF7B6150C759" ID-CoL="8HKXK" box="[208,323,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Inosomus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Inosomus</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFEC9CF7B61E2C759" ID-CoL="8HLZT" box="[336,497,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Mastersinella" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Mastersinella</taxonomicName>
</emphasis>
and 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFDB4CF7B62AEC759" box="[557,701,272,297]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDB4CF7B62AAC759" ID-CoL="8HSSM" box="[557,697,272,297]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Xenocnema" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">Xenocnema</taxonomicName>
,
</emphasis>
) cannot be regarded as close relatives of the South American 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF0ECF536108C721" ID-CoL="8HD66" box="[151,283,312,337]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Araucarius" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFF0ECF536108C721" box="[151,283,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Araucarius</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
nor exclusively of each other. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFD13CF53631DC721" ID-CoL="8HD66" box="[650,782,312,337]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Araucarius" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFD13CF53631DC721" box="[650,782,312,337]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Araucarius</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
has a more molytine 
<typeStatus id="5485883BFFAD992BFB89CF536451C722" box="[1040,1090,312,338]" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">type</typeStatus>
of tibial apex rather than the typically cossonine condition, and the other genera differ from each other again in mainly the tibial apex (typically cossonine in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFEE4CFE361FEC7D1" ID-CoL="8HKXK" box="[381,493,392,417]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Inosomus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFEE4CFE361FEC7D1" box="[381,493,392,417]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Inosomus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
but shovel-like expanded in the others) but also i.a. in the number of funicular segments (
<quantity id="4CC69B7CFFAD992BFE8FCFDB6157C7BA" box="[278,324,432,458]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.27" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" unit="in" value="5.0">5 in</quantity>
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFED5CFDB61E3C7B9" ID-CoL="8HGPN" box="[332,496,432,457]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Coptocorynus" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFED5CFDB61E3C7B9" box="[332,496,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Coptocorynus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, 
<quantity id="4CC69B7CFFAD992BFD99CFDB623DC7BA" box="[512,558,432,458]" metricMagnitude="-1" metricUnit="m" metricValue="1.778" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" unit="in" value="7.0">7 in</quantity>
all others), the shape of the rostrum (very short and broad in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFA95CFDB6586C7B9" ID-CoL="8HSSM" box="[1292,1429,432,457]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Xenocnema" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFA95CFDB6586C7B9" box="[1292,1429,432,457]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Xenocnema</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, long in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF6BCFB36180C781" ID-CoL="8HLZT" box="[242,403,472,497]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Mastersinella" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFF6BCFB36180C781" box="[242,403,472,497]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Mastersinella</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and the shape of the antennal club (various). The proper cossonines generally develop in dying or dead wood, the adults tunnelling into stems and trunks in advanced stages of decay. Most develop in dicotyledons but without any great degree of host specificity; however, some have more or less strict associations with monocotyledons, conifers and ferns. About 1 700 species are classified in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFB3DCC3B653DC41A" box="[1188,1326,592,618]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
, many of them widely distributed or even cosmopolitan.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAD992BFF5FCCCB61B2C05A" blockId="17.[151,1437,152,2018]" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF62CCF46168C4C9" box="[251,379,671,697]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFF62CCF46168C4C9" bold="true" box="[251,379,671,697]" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Scolytinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
or bark beetles are a large (ca. 6 0 0 0 species) and highly adapted group of weevils of considerable economic significance because of their impact on trees and the forestry industry. Their classificatory position remains controversial, specialists and sylviculturists usually treating them as a distinct family but recent morphological and phylogenetic studies of weevils generally including them as a subfamily in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFAD2CD7360E6C52A" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
(but see 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFEFDCD2B62B0C52A" author="Morimoto" box="[356,675,832,858]" pageId="17" pageNumber="517" refString="Morimoto, K. &amp; Kojima, H. (2003) Morphologic characters of the weevil head and phylogenetic implications (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea). Esakia, 43, 133 - 169." type="journal article" year="2003">Morimoto &amp; Kojima 2003</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFD29CD2B62E3C52A" author="Morimoto" box="[688,752,832,858]" pageId="17" pageNumber="517" refString="Morimoto, K. &amp; Kojima, H. (2004) Systematic position of the tribe Phylloplatypodini, with remarks on the definitions of the families Scolytidae, Platypodidae, Dryophthoridae and Curculionidae (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Esakia, 44, 153 - 168." type="journal article" year="2004">2004</bibRefCitation>
). In 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFCBFCD2B63DFC52A" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[806,972,832,858]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculionidae</taxonomicName>
they are usually closely affiliated with 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF0ECD036123C5F2" box="[151,304,872,898]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Platypodinae">Platypodinae</taxonomicName>
and/or 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE11CD03621CC5F2" box="[392,527,872,898]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
(e.g., 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFDC1CD03632DC5F2" author="Kuschel" box="[600,830,872,898]" pageId="17" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G., Leschen, R. A. B. &amp; Zimmerman, E. C. (2000) Platypodidae under scrutiny. Invertebrate Taxonomy, 14, 771 - 806." type="journal article" year="2000">
Kuschel 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFD27CD0362E2C5F1" box="[702,753,872,897]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">et al</emphasis>
. 2000
</bibRefCitation>
), but a close relationship to 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFB1BCD036508C5F2" box="[1154,1307,872,898]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Platypodinae">Platypodinae</taxonomicName>
is unlikely (see above) and in regards to 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE6DCDFB6268C5DA" box="[500,635,912,938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
it is unclear whether they might be adelphic to all 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFB4CCDFB654FC5DA" box="[1237,1372,912,938]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Cossoninae">Cossoninae</taxonomicName>
or to just a subset of genera (for the link to “Araucariini” see above). Considerable character agreements also exist with the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE98CD8B6189C58A" box="[257,410,992,1018]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Psepholacini">Psepholacini</taxonomicName>
, to the extent that 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDE0CD8B637CC589" ID-CoL="4NGSS" box="[633,879,992,1017]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Psepholax" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="latirostris">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFDE0CD8B637CC589" box="[633,879,992,1017]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Psepholax latirostris</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
was redescribed as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFBC6CD8B657AC589" ID-CoL="4N5MJ" box="[1119,1385,992,1017]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Protohylastes" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="species" species="annosus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFBC6CD8B657AC589" box="[1119,1385,992,1017]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Protohylastes annosus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
and interpreted as the most primitive scolytine (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFD3FCA636327C252" author="Wood" box="[678,820,1032,1058]" pageId="17" pageNumber="519" refString="Wood, S. L. (1973) On the taxonomic status of Platypodidae and Scolytidae (Coleoptera). Great Basin Naturalist, 33, 77 - 90." type="journal article" year="1973">Wood 1973</bibRefCitation>
, for details see 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFC6ECA6364CDC252" author="Zimmerman" box="[1015,1246,1032,1058]" pageId="17" pageNumber="520" refString="Zimmerman, E. C. (1994 a) Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Volume I - Orthoceri, Anthribidae to Attelabidae. The Primitive Weevils. CSIRO, Australia, 741 pp." type="book" year="1994" yearSuffix="a">Zimmerman 1994a</bibRefCitation>
), and the genus 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF0ECA5B6128C239" ID-CoL="8HH8T" box="[151,315,1072,1097]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Dactylipalpus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFF0ECA5B6128C239" box="[151,315,1072,1097]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Dactylipalpus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
, embedded in the tribe 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDD7CA5B62DBC23A" box="[590,712,1072,1098]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Hylesinini">Hylesinini</taxonomicName>
of the subfamily Hylesininae in Wood’s (1986) classification, is in fact also a psepholacine, taking the reduction of the rostrum in this group to a similar extent as it occurs in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFF2FCAEB6126C2EA" box="[182,309,1152,1178]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
. Further, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFE3FCAEB6278C2EA" author="Lekander" box="[422,619,1152,1178]" pageId="17" pageNumber="517" refString="Lekander, B. (1967) A description of two Magdalis larvae (Col. Curc.) and a comparison between these and the Scolytus larvae (Col. Scol.). Entomologisk Tidskrift, 88 (3 - 4), 123 - 129." type="journal article" year="1967">Lekander (1967)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFD3CCAEB6321C2EA" author="May" box="[677,818,1152,1178]" pageId="17" pageNumber="517" refString="May, B. M. (1993) Larvae of Curculionoidea (Insecta: Coleoptera): a systematic overview. Fauna of New Zealand, 28, 1 - 1221." type="journal article" year="1993">May (1993)</bibRefCitation>
identified several similarities between scolytine larvae (especially 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFED4CAC361BCC2B1" ID-CoL="8HFVS" box="[333,431,1192,1217]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" genus="Scolytus" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="genus">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFED4CAC361BCC2B1" box="[333,431,1192,1217]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Scolytus</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
) and those of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDCFCAC362FAC2B2" box="[598,745,1192,1218]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Mesoptiliini">Mesoptiliini</taxonomicName>
. In view of these extreme character convergences and misinterpretations of genera, it remains to be demonstrated that 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFCF6CABB63F8C29A" box="[879,1003,1232,1258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
as currently composed are in fact a monophyletic group, and doubts have to be cast on the reliability of many of the morphological characters used in phylogenetic analyses to establish the relationships of the group. It appears that comprehensive molecular analyses, spanning a large selection of curculionid groups, are required to properly elucidate the relationships and taxonomic status of this group. Within 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFC8FCB1B6386C3FA" box="[790,917,1392,1418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
, two groups are traditionally recognised, subfamilies Hylesininae and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE60CBF36266C3C2" box="[505,629,1432,1458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Scolytinae">Scolytinae</taxonomicName>
in Wood’s (1986) classification, but the former has already been shown to be paraphyletic (
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFE4DCBAB62DFC3AA" author="Sequeira" box="[468,716,1472,1498]" pageId="17" pageNumber="519" refString="Sequeira, A. S., Normark, B. B. &amp; Farrell, B. B. (2000) Evolutionary assembly of the conifer fauna: distinguishing ancient from recent associations in bark beetles. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 267, 2359 - 2366." type="journal article" year="2000">
Sequeira 
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFDDFCBAB626FC3A9" box="[582,636,1472,1497]" italics="true" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">et al</emphasis>
. 2000
</bibRefCitation>
), as have some tribes in either group (
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFB00CBAB6514C3AA" box="[1177,1287,1472,1498]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Tomicini">Tomicini</taxonomicName>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFA8CCBAB6138C072" author="Sequeira" pageId="17" pageNumber="519" refString="Sequeira, A. S. &amp; Farrell, B. B. (2001) Evolutionary origins of Gondwanan interactions: how old are Araucaria beetle herbivores? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 74, 459 - 474." type="journal article" year="2001">Sequeira &amp; Farrell 2001</bibRefCitation>
; 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFEAECB8361D5C072" box="[311,454,1512,1538]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Dryocoetini">Dryocoetini</taxonomicName>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFE4BCB836272C072" author="Jordal" box="[466,609,1512,1538]" pageId="17" pageNumber="516" refString="Jordal, B. H. (2002) Elongation Factor 1 α resolves the monophyly of the haplodiploid ambrosia beetles Xyleborini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Insect Molecular Biology, 11, 453 - 465." type="journal article" year="2002">Jordal 2002</bibRefCitation>
). The current system of 26 tribes is therefore likely to undergo significant changes in future.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAD9928FF5FC85361D0C722" blockId="17.[151,1437,152,2018]" lastBlockId="18.[151,1436,152,778]" lastPageId="18" lastPageNumber="509" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE99C85C616FC021" box="[256,380,1591,1617]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Baridinae">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAD992BFE99C85C616FC021" bold="true" box="[256,380,1591,1617]" pageId="17" pageNumber="508">Baridinae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
are here used in the sense of 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFD63C853645FC022" author="Zherikhin" box="[762,1100,1592,1618]" pageId="17" pageNumber="519" refString="Zherikhin, V. V. &amp; Egorov. A. (1990) Weevils (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) of the U. S. S. R. Far East (A review of subfamilies with description of new taxa). Biological-Pedological Institute, Vladivostok, 164 pp. [in Russian]." type="book" year="1990">Zherikhin &amp; Egorov (1990)</bibRefCitation>
and 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAD992BFB16C85360FBC00A" author="Zherikhin" lastPageId="17" lastPageNumber="520" pageId="17" pageNumber="519" refString="Zherikhin, V. V. &amp; Gratshev, V. G. (1995) A comparative study of the hind wing venation of the superfamily Curculionoidea, with phylogenetic implications. Pp. 633 - 777. In: Pakaluk, J. &amp; S lipinski, S. A. (Eds). Biology, Phylogeny and Classification of Coleoptera. Papers Celebrating the 80 th Birthday of Roy A. Crowson. Muzeum i Instytut Zoologii PAN, Warszawa, 1092 pp." type="book chapter" year="1995">Zherikhin &amp; Gratshev (1995)</bibRefCitation>
, who included 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFE01C80B6222C00A" box="[408,561,1632,1658]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Conoderinae">Conoderinae</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFDA5C80B6314C00A" box="[572,775,1632,1658]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Ceutorhynchinae">Ceutorhynchinae</taxonomicName>
, Trigonocolinae and Orobitinae in it, the former study as tribes in a subfamily but the latter as subfamilies in a separate family, Barididae. Several characters are given in support of this grouping: a transverse carina at the hind margin of the pronotum, a strongly curved submarginal fold at the interior surface of the elytra, a total fusion of metepisternum and metepimeron, a strong median carina on the inside of the metathorax (an apparently unique feature in Curculionoidea) and a number of agreements in wing venation. This relationship and the characters supporting it have not been tested and confirmed, and while there are at least some species in this grouping that have a separate metepisternum and metepimeron, the taxa in this group also share some other notable features, such as large ascending mesepimera and a similar pygidium, so that there appears to be some merit in pulling them together. A more detailed evaluation of this indicated relationship is, however, direly needed. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAD992BFC21C9A36439C192" box="[952,1066,1992,2018]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="17" pageNumber="508" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Baridinae">Baridinae</taxonomicName>
in this concept comprise about 8 0 0 0 species, over half of them in 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FDB6CEF36281C6C2" box="[559,658,152,178]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Baridini">Baridini</taxonomicName>
, which are especially diverse in the American tropics. Their larvae develop mostly in fruits but also in stems of various angiosperms, but those of Conoderini are often woodborers. Associations with monocotyledons and gymnosperms (including Gnetales) also occur. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FB22CE836562C772" box="[1211,1393,232,258]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Ceutorhynchini">Ceutorhynchini</taxonomicName>
are predominantly associated with 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FD80CF7B62A3C75A" ID-CoL="7DN" box="[537,688,272,298]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Brassicaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Brassicales" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Brassicaceae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FD6ECF7B6389C75A" box="[759,922,272,298]" class="Magnoliopsida" family="Polygonaceae" kingdom="Plantae" order="Polygonales" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Tracheophyta" rank="family">Polygonaceae</taxonomicName>
and include important biological control agents of invasive weeds.
</paragraph>
<paragraph id="8B813699FFAE9928FF5FCF0B64FFC57A" blockId="18.[151,1436,152,778]" pageId="18" pageNumber="509">
The 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FF62CF3461BDC709" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[251,430,351,377]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">
<emphasis id="B94AEA8BFFAE9928FF62CF3461BDC709" bold="true" box="[251,430,351,377]" pageId="18" pageNumber="509">Curculioninae</emphasis>
</taxonomicName>
include the remaining tribes of the family, such as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FB9ECF0B6495C70A" box="[1031,1158,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Acalyptini">Acalyptini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FB08CF0B6523C70A" box="[1169,1328,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Anthonomini">Anthonomini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FAA5CF0B6584C70A" box="[1340,1431,352,378]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Cionini">Cionini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FF0ECFE36132C7D2" box="[151,289,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Cryptoplini">Cryptoplini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FEB5CFE361D0C7D2" box="[300,451,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Curculionini">Curculionini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FE56CFE3624BC7D2" box="[463,600,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Derelomini">Derelomini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FDFBCFE362C9C7D2" box="[610,730,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erodiscini">Erodiscini</taxonomicName>
(fig. 22), 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FCC9CFE363C6C7D2" box="[848,981,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Eugnomini">Eugnomini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FC79CFE3645EC7D2" box="[992,1101,392,418]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Mecinini">Mecinini</taxonomicName>
, Ochyromerini, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FA92CFE360D2C7BA" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Otidocephalini">Otidocephalini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FF54CFDB6141C7BA" box="[205,338,432,458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Rhamphini">Rhamphini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FEC7CFDB621DC7BA" box="[350,526,432,458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Smicronychini">Smicronychini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FD80CFDB626BC7BA" box="[537,632,432,458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Storeini">Storeini</taxonomicName>
, 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FD1CCFDB62F5C7BA" box="[645,742,432,458]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Tychiini">Tychiini</taxonomicName>
(fig. 23), Viticiini and likely also Diabathrariini, Gonipterini, Omophorini and others. Often referred to as “flower weevils”, their larvae develop predominantly in reproductive plant organs such as flowers, fruits and seeds. 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FCF0CC6B63C2C46A" box="[873,977,512,538]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Hyperini">Hyperini</taxonomicName>
appear to belong here as well but are rather different in their biology, their larvae feeding ectophytically on leaves and spinning net-like silken cocoons (fig. 24). The concepts of many of these tribes are yet unclear, and phylogenetic relationships among them even more so, but a few promising advances have recently been made, e.g. in the delimitation of 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FAA4CC1360ADC4CA" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Acalyptini">Acalyptini</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FF6ECCCB616FC4CA" box="[247,380,672,698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Derelomini">Derelomini</taxonomicName>
(
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAE9928FE15CCCB62DBC4CA" author="Kojima" box="[396,712,672,698]" pageId="18" pageNumber="516" refString="Kojima, H. &amp; Morimoto, K. (2005) Weevils of the tribe Acalyptini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Curculioninae): redefinition and a taxonomic treatment of the Japanese, Korean and Taiwanese species. Esakia, 45, 69 - 115." type="journal article" year="2005">Kojima &amp; Morimoto 2005</bibRefCitation>
, 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAE9928FD4ACCCB634EC4CA" author="Franz" box="[723,861,672,698]" pageId="18" pageNumber="515" refString="Franz, N. (2005) Towards a phylogenetic system of derelomine flower weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Systematic Entomology, 30, 1 - 97." type="journal article" year="2005">Franz 2005</bibRefCitation>
). Whether 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FC44CCCB6490C4CA" ID-CoL="8HBQ5" box="[989,1155,672,698]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" higherTaxonomySource="GBIF" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="family">Curculioninae</taxonomicName>
in this or a similar concept constitute a natural group remains to be seen; 
<bibRefCitation id="EFAF4B68FFAE9928FD68CCA363BBC492" author="Kuschel" box="[753,936,712,738]" pageId="18" pageNumber="516" refString="Kuschel, G. (1995) A phylogenetic classification of Curculionoidea to families and subfamilies. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington, 14, 5 - 33." type="journal article" year="1995">Kuschel (1995)</bibRefCitation>
advocated an even large one that includes also the 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FF61CC9B6162C57A" box="[248,369,752,778]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Molytinae">Molytinae</taxonomicName>
and 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FE33CC9B620FC57A" box="[426,540,752,778]" class="Insecta" family="Curculionidae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="subFamily" subFamily="Baridinae">Baridinae</taxonomicName>
as outlined here as well as 
<taxonomicName id="4C3E4D1AFFAE9928FCC4CC9B63DCC57A" box="[861,975,752,778]" class="Insecta" family="Brachyceridae" kingdom="Animalia" order="Coleoptera" pageId="18" pageNumber="509" phylum="Arthropoda" rank="tribe" tribe="Erirhinini">Erirhinini</taxonomicName>
and Raymondionymini.
</paragraph>
</subSubSection>
</treatment>
</document>