Tyrannosaurus rex
cites: zenodo.3734920
cites: zenodo.3734922
cites: zenodo.3734924
cites: zenodo.3734926
cites: zenodo.3734928
cites: zenodo.3734930
cites: zenodo.3734932
cites: zenodo.3734934
cites: zenodo.4032603
cites: zenodo.4032605
cites: zenodo.3734940
cites: zenodo.3734942
cites: zenodo.3734954
cites: zenodo.3734944
cites: zenodo.3734946
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cites: zenodo.3734964
cites: zenodo.3734956
cites: zenodo.3734958
cites: zenodo.3734960
cites: zenodo.3734962
cites: Acrocanthosaurus atokensis Stovall 1950
cites: Agelaius phoeniceus Linnaeus 1766
cites: Albertosaurus sarcophagus Osborn 1905
cites: Alligator mississippiensis Daudin 1802
cites: Alligator sinensis Fauvel 1879
cites: Allosaurus Marsh 1877
cites: Allosaurus fragilis Marsh 1877
cites: Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus 1758
cites: Aquila chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758
cites: Asio flammeus Pontoppidan 1763
cites: Caiman crocodylus Lehr 2002
cites: Camarasaurus grandis Marsh 1877
cites: Ceratosaurus Marsh 1884
cites: Ceratosaurus nasicornis Marsh 1884
cites: Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm 1822
cites: Crocodylus acutus Cuvier 1807
cites: Cygnus columbianus Ord 1815
cites: Daspletosaurus Russell 1970
cites: Daspletosaurus bauri Cope 1887
cites: Daspletosaurus torosus Russell 1970
cites: Dilophosaurus sinensis Hu 1993
cites: Dilophosaurus wetherelli Welles 1954
cites: Dilophosaurus wetherilli Welles 1970
cites: Falco columbarius Linnaeus 1758
cites: Gallus gallus Linnaeus 1758
cites: Giganotosaurus carolini Coria 1995
cites: Gorgosaurus libratus Lambe 1914
cites: Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766
cites: Heloderma Wiegmann 1829
cites: Homo sapiens Linnaeus 1758
cites: Leptoptilos crumenifer Lesson 1831
cites: Leptoptilos crumeniferus Lesson 1831
cites: Monolophosaurus jiangi Zhao 1993
cites: Nanotyrannus lancensis Bakker 1988
cites: Pelicanus occidentalis Struthio
cites: Pica pica Linnaeus 1758
cites: Saurornithoides mongoliensis Osborn 1924
cites: Sinraptor dongi Currie 1994
cites: Struthio camelus Linnaeus 1758
cites: Tarbosaurus bataar Maleev 1955
cites: Todiramphus cinnamominus Swainson 1821
cites: Torvosaurus tanneri Galton 1979
cites: Tyrannosauridae Osborn 1906
cites: Velociraptor mongoliensis Osborn 1924
creator: Eric Snively; Anthony P. Russell
augments taxon concept: Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn 1905
cites taxon name: Alligator
cites taxon name: Aves
cites taxon name: Caiman
cites taxon name: Crocodylia
cites taxon name: Cygnus buccinator
cites taxon name: Pelicanus occidentalis
cites taxon name: Varanidae
cites taxon name: Varanus dumerilii
published in: Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach
type: Treatment

Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach
end page: 808
journal: Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
numero: 4
start page: 759
volume: 151
creator: Eric Snively; Anthony P. Russell
date: 2007
has part: zenodo.3734920
has part: zenodo.3734922
has part: zenodo.3734924
has part: zenodo.3734926
has part: zenodo.3734928
has part: zenodo.3734930
has part: zenodo.3734932
has part: zenodo.3734934
has part: zenodo.4032603
has part: zenodo.4032605
has part: zenodo.3734940
has part: zenodo.3734942
has part: zenodo.3734954
has part: zenodo.3734944
has part: zenodo.3734946
has part: zenodo.3734948
has part: zenodo.3734950
has part: zenodo.3734952
has part: zenodo.3734964
has part: zenodo.3734956
has part: zenodo.3734958
has part: zenodo.3734960
has part: zenodo.3734962
type: JournalArticle

Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn 1905
authority: Osborn, 1905
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Tyrannosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Osborn, 1905
species: rex
has taxon name: Tyrannosaurus rex
type: TaxonConcept

Tyrannosauridae Osborn 1906
authority name: Osborn
authority year: 1906
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: family
scientific name authorship: Osborn, 1906
has taxon name: Tyrannosauridae
type: TaxonConcept

Allosaurus fragilis Marsh 1877
authority: Marsh, 1877
class: Reptilia
family: Allosauridae
genus: Allosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Marsh, 1877
species: fragilis
has taxon name: Allosaurus fragilis
type: TaxonConcept

Allosaurus Marsh 1877
authority: Marsh, 1877
class: Reptilia
family: Allosauridae
genus: Allosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: genus
scientific name authorship: Marsh, 1877
has taxon name: Allosaurus
type: TaxonConcept

Alligator mississippiensis Daudin 1802
base authority name: Daudin
base authority year: 1802
class: Reptilia
family: Alligatoridae
genus: Alligator
kingdom: Animalia
order: Crocodylia
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: (Daudin, 1802)
species: mississippiensis
has taxon name: Alligator mississippiensis
type: TaxonConcept

Caiman crocodylus Lehr 2002
authority name: Lehr
authority year: 2002
class: Reptilia
family: Alligatoridae
genus: Caiman
kingdom: Animalia
order: Crocodylia
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Lehr, 2002
species: crocodylus
has taxon name: Caiman crocodylus
type: TaxonConcept

Crocodylus acutus Cuvier 1807
authority: Cuvier, 1807
class: Reptilia
family: Crocodylidae
genus: Crocodylus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Crocodylia
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Cuvier, 1807
species: acutus
has taxon name: Crocodylus acutus
type: TaxonConcept

Struthio camelus Linnaeus 1758
authority: Linnaeus, 1758
class: Aves
family: Struthionidae
genus: Struthio
kingdom: Animalia
order: Struthioniformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: camelus
has taxon name: Struthio camelus
type: TaxonConcept

Leptoptilos crumeniferus Lesson 1831
authority: Lesson, 1831
class: Aves
family: Ciconiidae
genus: Leptoptilos
kingdom: Animalia
order: Ciconiiformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Lesson, 1831
species: crumeniferus
has taxon name: Leptoptilos crumeniferus
type: TaxonConcept

Cygnus columbianus Ord 1815
base authority name: Ord
base authority year: 1815
class: Aves
family: Anatidae
genus: Cygnus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Anseriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: (Ord, 1815)
species: columbianus
has taxon name: Cygnus columbianus
type: TaxonConcept

Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus 1758
authority name: Linnaeus
authority year: 1758
class: Aves
family: Anatidae
genus: Anas
kingdom: Animalia
order: Anseriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: platyrhynchos
has taxon name: Anas platyrhynchos
type: TaxonConcept

Gallus gallus Linnaeus 1758
authority name: Linnaeus
authority year: 1758
class: Aves
family: Phasianidae
genus: Gallus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Galliformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: gallus
has taxon name: Gallus gallus
type: TaxonConcept

Falco columbarius Linnaeus 1758
authority: Linnaeus, 1758
authority name: Linnaeus
authority year: 1758
class: Aves
family: Falconidae
genus: Falco
kingdom: Animalia
order: Falconiformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: columbarius
has taxon name: Falco columbarius
type: TaxonConcept

Aquila chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758
authority name: Linnaeus
authority year: 1758
class: Aves
family: Accipitridae
genus: Aquila
kingdom: Animalia
order: Accipitriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: chrysaetos
has taxon name: Aquila chrysaetos
type: TaxonConcept

Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766
authority: Linnaeus, 1766
authority name: Linnaeus
authority year: 1766
class: Aves
family: Accipitridae
genus: Haliaeetus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Accipitriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1766
species: leucocephalus
has taxon name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus
type: TaxonConcept

Asio flammeus Pontoppidan 1763
authority: Pontoppidan, 1763
class: Aves
family: Strigidae
genus: Asio
kingdom: Animalia
order: Strigiformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Pontoppidan, 1763
species: flammeus
has taxon name: Asio flammeus
type: TaxonConcept

Todiramphus cinnamominus Swainson 1821
authority: Swainson, 1821
class: Aves
family: Alcedinidae
genus: Todiramphus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Coraciiformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Swainson, 1821
species: cinnamominus
has taxon name: Todiramphus cinnamominus
type: TaxonConcept

Pica pica Linnaeus 1758
authority: Linnaeus, 1758
class: Aves
family: Corvidae
genus: Pica
kingdom: Animalia
order: Passeriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: pica
has taxon name: Pica pica
type: TaxonConcept

Nanotyrannus lancensis Bakker 1988
authority: Bakker, Currie & Williams, 1988
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Nanotyrannus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Bakker, Currie & Williams, 1988
species: lancensis
has taxon name: Nanotyrannus lancensis
type: TaxonConcept

Tarbosaurus bataar Maleev 1955
authority: Maleev, 1955
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Tarbosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Maleev, 1955
species: bataar
has taxon name: Tarbosaurus bataar
type: TaxonConcept

Daspletosaurus torosus Russell 1970
authority: Russell, 1970
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Daspletosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Russell, 1970
species: torosus
has taxon name: Daspletosaurus torosus
type: TaxonConcept

Daspletosaurus Russell 1970
authority: Russell, 1970
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Daspletosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: genus
scientific name authorship: Russell, 1970
has taxon name: Daspletosaurus
type: TaxonConcept

Gorgosaurus libratus Lambe 1914
authority: Lambe 1914
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Gorgosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Lambe, 1914
species: libratus
has taxon name: Gorgosaurus libratus
type: TaxonConcept

Albertosaurus sarcophagus Osborn 1905
authority: Osborn, 1905
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Albertosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Osborn, 1905
species: sarcophagus
has taxon name: Albertosaurus sarcophagus
type: TaxonConcept

Acrocanthosaurus atokensis Stovall 1950
authority: Stovall & Langston, 1950
class: Reptilia
family: Carcharodontosauridae
genus: Acrocanthosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Stovall & Langston, 1950
species: atokensis
has taxon name: Acrocanthosaurus atokensis
type: TaxonConcept

Ceratosaurus Marsh 1884
authority: Marsh, 1884
class: Reptilia
family: Ceratosauridae
genus: Ceratosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: genus
scientific name authorship: Marsh, 1884
has taxon name: Ceratosaurus
type: TaxonConcept

Dilophosaurus wetherilli Welles 1970
authority: Welles, 1970
class: Reptilia
family: Dilophosauridae
genus: Dilophosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Welles, 1970
species: wetherilli
has taxon name: Dilophosaurus wetherilli
type: TaxonConcept

Dilophosaurus sinensis Hu 1993
authority: Hu, 1993
class: Reptilia
family: Dilophosauridae
genus: Dilophosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Hu, 1993
species: sinensis
has taxon name: Dilophosaurus sinensis
type: TaxonConcept

Giganotosaurus carolini Coria 1995
authority: Coria & Salgado, 1995
class: Reptilia
family: Carcharodontosauridae
genus: Giganotosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Coria & Salgado, 1995
species: carolini
has taxon name: Giganotosaurus carolini
type: TaxonConcept

Monolophosaurus jiangi Zhao 1993
authority: Zhao & Currie 1993
class: Reptilia
genus: Monolophosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Zhao & Currie, 1993
species: jiangi
has taxon name: Monolophosaurus jiangi
type: TaxonConcept

Sinraptor dongi Currie 1994
authority: Currie and Zhao, 1994
class: Reptilia
family: Metriacanthosauridae
genus: Sinraptor
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Currie & Zhao, 1994
species: dongi
has taxon name: Sinraptor dongi
type: TaxonConcept

Torvosaurus tanneri Galton 1979
authority: Galton & Jensen 1979
class: Reptilia
family: Megalosauridae
genus: Torvosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Galton & Jensen, 1979
species: tanneri
has taxon name: Torvosaurus tanneri
type: TaxonConcept

Pelicanus occidentalis Struthio
authority: , Struthio
authority name: Struthio
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Pelicanus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Struthio
species: occidentalis
has taxon name: Pelicanus occidentalis
type: TaxonConcept

Agelaius phoeniceus Linnaeus 1766
authority: Linnaeus, 1766
class: Aves
family: Icteridae
genus: Agelaius
kingdom: Animalia
order: Passeriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1766
species: phoeniceus
has taxon name: Agelaius phoeniceus
type: TaxonConcept

Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm 1822
authority: Brehm, 1822
class: Aves
family: Corvidae
genus: Corvus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Passeriformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Brehm, 1822
species: brachyrhynchos
has taxon name: Corvus brachyrhynchos
type: TaxonConcept

Leptoptilos crumenifer Lesson 1831
authority: Lesson, 1831
class: Aves
family: Ciconiidae
genus: Leptoptilos
kingdom: Animalia
order: Ciconiiformes
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Lesson, 1831
species: crumenifer
has taxon name: Leptoptilos crumenifer
type: TaxonConcept

Saurornithoides mongoliensis Osborn 1924
authority: Osborn 1924
class: Reptilia
family: Troodontidae
genus: Saurornithoides
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Osborn, 1924
species: mongoliensis
has taxon name: Saurornithoides mongoliensis
type: TaxonConcept

Velociraptor mongoliensis Osborn 1924
authority: Osborn 1924
class: Reptilia
family: Dromaeosauridae
genus: Velociraptor
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Osborn, 1924
species: mongoliensis
has taxon name: Velociraptor mongoliensis
type: TaxonConcept

Daspletosaurus bauri Cope 1887
authority: Cope, 1887
class: Reptilia
family: Coelophysidae
genus: Daspletosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Cope, 1887
species: bauri
has taxon name: Daspletosaurus bauri
type: TaxonConcept

Dilophosaurus wetherelli Welles 1954
authority: Welles, 1954
class: Reptilia
family: Dilophosauridae
genus: Dilophosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Welles, 1954
species: wetherelli
has taxon name: Dilophosaurus wetherelli
type: TaxonConcept

Ceratosaurus nasicornis Marsh 1884
authority: Marsh, 1884
class: Reptilia
family: Ceratosauridae
genus: Ceratosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Marsh, 1884
species: nasicornis
has taxon name: Ceratosaurus nasicornis
type: TaxonConcept

Camarasaurus grandis Marsh 1877
authority: Marsh, 1877
class: Reptilia
family: Camarasauridae
genus: Camarasaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Marsh, 1877
species: grandis
has taxon name: Camarasaurus grandis
type: TaxonConcept

Homo sapiens Linnaeus 1758
authority: Linnaeus, 1758
class: Mammalia
family: Hominidae
genus: Homo
kingdom: Animalia
order: Primates
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Linnaeus, 1758
species: sapiens
has taxon name: Homo sapiens
type: TaxonConcept

Heloderma Wiegmann 1829
authority: Wiegmann, 1829
class: Reptilia
family: Helodermatidae
genus: Heloderma
kingdom: Animalia
order: Squamata
phylum: Chordata
rank: genus
scientific name authorship: Wiegmann, 1829
has taxon name: Heloderma
type: TaxonConcept

Alligator sinensis Fauvel 1879
authority name: Fauvel
authority year: 1879
class: Reptilia
family: Alligatoridae
genus: Alligator
kingdom: Animalia
order: Crocodylia
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
scientific name authorship: Fauvel, 1879
species: sinensis
has taxon name: Alligator sinensis
type: TaxonConcept

Tyrannosaurus rex
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
genus: Tyrannosaurus
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: species
species: rex
has parent name: Tyrannosaurus
type: TaxonName

Tyrannosaurus
genus: Tyrannosaurus
rank: genus
has parent name: Tyrannosauridae
type: TaxonName

Tyrannosauridae
class: Reptilia
family: Tyrannosauridae
kingdom: Animalia
order: Dinosauria
phylum: Chordata
rank: family
has parent name: Dinosauria
type: TaxonName

Dinosauria
order: Dinosauria
rank: order
has parent name: Reptilia
type: TaxonName

Reptilia
class: Reptilia
rank: class
has parent name: Chordata
type: TaxonName

Chordata
phylum: Chordata
rank: phylum
has parent name: Animalia
type: TaxonName

Animalia
kingdom: Animalia
rank: kingdom
type: TaxonName

zenodo.3734920
description: Figure 1. Divisions of amniote neck and craniocervical musculature, superimposed on the cervical vertebrae of Caiman crocodylus. Different shades represent transversospinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis and longus/medial iliocostalis divisions
type: Figure

zenodo.3734922
description: Figure 2. A, inference of muscle function for turning the head in extant animals. Axes represent levels of corroboration of muscle topological and kinematic morphology, physiology and observed behaviour. The volume subtended by these levels of certainty is the behavioural inference space for the muscle. The muscles m. transversospinalis capitis lateralis and m. complexus, homologous and present in crocodilians and birds, respectively, are depicted as examples with different levels of corroboration along the axes and more or less certain inference of function. Physiological activity is shown as confirmed by electromyography in birds, but only hypothesized in crocodilians. B, inferring the function of m. complexus for turning the head in tyrannosaurids. Axes represent levels of inference (Witmer, 1995) for morphology and physiology, and level of inference for kinematic action of the muscle based on its reconstructed morphology (see text for explanation). Because physiological muscle function during movements is corroborated in only one pole of the extant bracket, and the physiology does not leave osteological correlates, a Level II′ inference is the best possible for the extinct taxon .
description: Figure 2. A, inference of muscle function for turning the head in extant animals. Axes represent levels of corroboration of muscle topological and kinematic morphology, physiology and observed behaviour. The volume subtended by these levels of certainty is the behavioural inference space for the muscle. The muscles m. transversospinalis capitis lateralis and m. complexus, homologous and present in crocodilians and birds, respectively, are depicted as examples with different levels of corroboration along the axes and more or less certain inference of function. Physiological activity is shown as confirmed by electromyography in birds, but only hypothesized in crocodilians. B, inferring the function of m. complexus for turning the head in tyrannosaurids. Axes represent levels of inference (Witmer, 1995) for morphology and physiology, and level of inference for kinematic action of the muscle based on its reconstructed morphology (see text for explanation). Because physiological muscle function during movements is corroborated in only one pole of the extant bracket, and the physiology does not leave osteological correlates, a Level II′ inference is the best possible for the extinct taxon
type: Figure

zenodo.3734924
description: Figure 3. Flow chart for extant behavioural interpolation, which enables inference of muscle-modulated behaviours in extinct animals. The certainty of behavioural inference in an extinct taxon is inversely related to the behaviour’s specificity. Behaviour can be inferred by phylogenetic bracketing if similarity of muscle function is established in extant clades by kinematic and physiological considerations, and if these functions correlate with similar behaviours in the extant groups.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734926
description: Figure 4. Comparison of major sites of muscle attachment on the necks of tyrannosaurids versus crocodilians and birds. A, cervical series of Caiman crocodylus (above; C1–C9) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below; C1–C10), depicting similarities of posterior transverse process morpohology. B, cervical series of Asio flamaeus (above) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below), depicting morphological similarities of epipophysis and the C2 neural spine. In all three groups the anterior transverse processes are smaller than their posterior counterparts (to show this clearly the C2 cerivical rib of T. rex is not pictured). Cervical rib morphology differs markedly among these archosaurs. The specimens are scaled to similar lengths from C1 to C9. The Tyrannosaurus rex is a composite reconstruction of C1 from Osborn (1905), BHI 3033 (C2) and AMNH 5027 (the remaining bones).
type: Figure

zenodo.3734928
description: Figure 5. Attachments of muscles inserting on the occiput of birds. A, posterior cervical vertebrae of Strutio camelus, showing osteological origin of posterior belly of m. biventer cervicis. B, anterior cervical vertebrae of Haliaeetus leucocephalus, with origins of m. complexus, m. splenius capitis and m. rectus capitis dorsalis (outlined). M. complexus originates from the epipophyses dorsally (as in Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and sometimes the lateral tubercles ventrally. For adjoining origins of m. complexus and m. rectus capitis dorsalis from the lateral tubercles, the latter is the anterior of each pair. C, occiput of Struthio camelus, depicting all insertions. In Struthio camelus and many other birds m. splenius capitis lateralis inserts laterally onto the occiput, but in other birds part of m. complexus inserts here.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734930
description: Figure 6. Neck muscle origins and insertions in crocodilians. A, muscle attachments on C1–C9 of Caiman crocodylus. B, muscle insertions on the occiput of Caiman crocodylus. m. trans. cap., m. transversospinalis capitis; m. epi.-cap. lat., m. epstropheo-capitis lateralis; m. epi.-cap. med., m. epstropheo-capitis medialis; m. sp.cap. post., m. spinocapitis posticus; m. trans. cerv., m. transversospinalis cervicis; m. long. cerv., m. longissimus cervicis (m. articulares/m. tendinoarticulares); m. long. cap., m. longus capitis; m. long. cap. sup., m. longissimus capitis superficialis; m. long. cap. prof., m. longissimus capitis profundus; m. il. cap., m. iliocostalis capitis; m. il. cerv., m. iliocostalis cervicis.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734932
description: Figure 7. A, dorsal view of m. biventer cervicis (m. biv. c., dark outline) and m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis of Aquila chrysaetos. Note the tendon intervening between anterior and posterior bellies of m. biv. c. M. complexus has been removed. B, dorsal view of m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap., dark outline) of Alligator mississippiensis. Medial and lateral portions of m. trans. cap. in Alligator are not distinguished here. C, lateral view of m. trans. cap. of Alligator mississippiensis (dark outline). D, m. complexus (dark outline) and m. rectus capitis lateralis (light outline) of Pelicanus occidentalis in lateral view. E, m. complexus of Pelicanus occidentalis, outlined in dark grey on the right. This is a dorsal view, with anterior towards the top. F, dorsal view of dissected Alligator mississippiensis, with m. epistrpheo-capitis lateralis, m. spinocapitis posticus and m. transversospinalis cervicis outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. G, m. splenius capitis of Anas platyrhynchos, from C2 to the occiput, outlined in grey, in posterior view. M. complexus and m. biventer cervicis have been removed. H, m. epistropheo-capitis medialis/m. altoïdius capitis of Caiman crocodylus, outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis and m. epistropheo-capitis lateralis have been removed.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734934
description: Figure 8. A, lateral view of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis (m. l.c.d. cranialis), m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis (m. l.c.d. caudalis) and mm. intertransversarii (mm. intertrans.) of Cygnus columbianus. Note posterior slips contributing to m. l.c.d. cranialis, ventrally inserting heads of m. l.c.d. caudalis and multiple tendinous divisions of all mm. intertrans. B, left m. transversospinalis cervicis (m. trans. cerv., outlined in grey) of Caiman crocodylus, inserts by a white tendon onto C1. M. spinocapitis posticus (m. sp. cap. post.) and m. longissimus capitis superficialis (m. long. cap. sup., with part of surrounding fascia left on) are also outlined in grey. Superficial muscles have been removed.
type: Figure

zenodo.4032603
description: Figure 9. A, insertions of (dark grey) m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis onto anterior cervical epipophyses of Haliaeetus leucocephalus. B, schematic origin (light grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis, from cervicodorsal region of Struthio camelus. C, schematic origins (dark grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis from epipophyses (processes dorsales) of posterior cervicals in Struthio camelus. Slips from these origins coalasce with the main belly of the muscle, as demarcated by the light-shaded lines. The main belly of the muscle continues dorsally. D, schematic origin and insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis. This muscle subsystem originates from the cervicodorsal region and sends multiple bellies to insert on posterior cervical epipophyses. E, origins of m. longissimus cervicis/m interarticulares of Caiman crocodylus. The gradient-filled slips represent association of origins with the fascia surrounding the muscles. F, anteriormost insertions (dark grey) of m. longissimus cervicis/m. interarticulares, and m. transversospinalis cervicis, of Caiman crocodylus.
type: Figure

zenodo.4032605
description: Figure 10. A, several muscles of Pelicanus occidentalis, disseted in lateral view. Abbreviations are as in the main text. Several slips of m. rectus capitis dorsalis (m. r.c.d.) converge ventrally, towards tendinous insertions on the basioccipital tuberosities. M. complexus has an unusual lateral, tendinous insertion. B, posterolateral view of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (outlined in dark grey) of Alligator mississippiensis. The posterior origin and the insertion are tendinous. M. iliocostallis capitis (m. il. cap.) is depicted, and m. constrictor colli has not been dissected away. The neck is slightly dorsiflexed in this view .
type: Figure

zenodo.3734940
description: Figure 11. A, origins (dark shapes) and insertions (lighter outlined shapes) of mm. intertransversarii aponeuroses on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of lateral tubercles, and insertions are onto posterior projections of the lateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins to effect intervertebral lateroflexion. B, origins (dark) and insertions (lighter) of mm. inclusii on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of the costal processes, and insertions are onto the lateral and dorsolateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins. C, origins (dark-filled shapes) and insertions (light-filled shapes) of lateral portions of mm. intertransversarii in Caiman crocodylus. Arrows represent lines of action from origin to insertion, by which the muscles would lateroflex the anterior vertebra of each pair relative to the posterior one.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734942
description: Figure 12. A, origins of m. rectus capitis lateralis (m. r.c.l.) and rectus capitis ventralis (m. r.c.v.) of Corvus brachyrhynchos, from C2 prosessus ventralis. B, all origins of m. r.c.v. from anterior cervicals of another specimen of Corvus brachyrhynchos, and its m. rectus capitis lateralis origin from C2. Both images are ventrolateral views. C, ventrolateral view of m. rectus capitis ventralis (with light outline) of Falco columbarius.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734954
description: Figure 18. Topological appearance of (A) m. splenius capitis (medial part) and (B) m. longus colli dorsalis/ transversospinalis cervicis, on anterior vertebrae and skull of Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton (AMNH 5027). Note that the parietals are probably closer to the axial neural spine than in neutral life posture, and m. splenius capitis would be longer than shown here. C, topological appearance of m. splenius on another specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). M. complexus is also represented, and m. transversospinalis capits is depicted as though reflected back. D, E, appearance of m. longissimus capitis profundus (large anterior muscle), and cervical mm. intertransversarii (bands between transverse processes), on skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). A′–E′, functional inference strengths of muscles after visualization of inference space in Figure 2. A′, strength of functional inference for m. splenius capitis of tyrannosaurids, for head dorsiflexion and stabilization. The large inference space is possible by morphological and physiological bracketing between homologous muscles in birds and crocodilians. B′, strength of functional inference for m. transversospinalis cervicis of tyrannosaurids, for neck dorsiflexion. Inference strengh is particularly high for this muscle. D′, Level II′ inference for ventroflexion by m. longissimus capitis profundus. E′, inferernce for lateroflexion by mm. interntransversarii, with poor, Level III′ support from physiological data; EMG has been uninformative about mm. intertrans. lateroflexion in extant archosaurs .
type: Figure

zenodo.3734944
description: › Figure 13. A, the posteriormost subdivision of m. longus colli ventralis of Leptoptilos crumeniferus, depitcted in ventrolateral view. The outlined bellies originate deep in the thoracic region, and insert on light-coloured tendons to the posterior cervical ribs. The inset shows the morphology without highlighting. B, C, anteroventral views of the anterior vertebrae of Asio flammeus, depicting origins (B) and insertions (C), in dark shading, of m. longus colli ventralis. In B arrows represent schematic action of multiple slips of m. l.c.v. converging on an anterior insertion. D, ventral view of insertions (light shading) of m. iliocostalis cervicis onto the cervical ribs of Caiman crocodylus, with arrows representing schematic ventroflexive action. E, cervical vertebrae and ribs of Caiman crocodylus in oblique ventral view, depicting origins (dark shading) of m. rectus capitis ventralis and m. longus capitis, and m. iliocostalis cervicis (lighter shading), from the ventral centra and ventral spinous processes.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734946
description: Figure 14. Mm. intercristales and mm. cervicales accendentes of birds. A, mm. intercristales shaded dark on the posterior cervicals of Leptoptilos crumeniferus. Inset to left depicts mm. intercristales in context on more of the neck. Recoil of the elastic ligament dorsiflexed the neck in this dissection specimen. B, mm. ascendentes cervicales on the posterior neck of Aquila chrysaetos (light outline). Most of m. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. C, origins and insertions of mm. intercristales (dark shapes), and cervicales ascendentes (lighter shapes), on the posterior cervicals of Struthio camelus. Arrows represent lines of action pulling the insertion towards the origin. In mm. intercristales, origins are from the anterior part of the attachment overlain in blue, and insertions from the posterior part of this area on the next anterior vertebra. For mm. cervicales ascendentes, several slips from posterior vertebrae converge upon a common insertion.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734948
description: Figure 15. Photographic-style representation of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027) neck muscles, with definitive osteological correlates, visible in lateral view. A–C represent successively deeper layers. Varying hues represent transversospinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis and longus derivatives derivatives, respectively. Some muscles are omitted for clarity, including mm. interspinales between neural spines, and m. iliocostalis cervicis that inserted medially on the cervical ribs. M. transversospinalis capitis and cervicis, and m. longissimus capitis superficialis, are drawn as gradients to show tendinous anterior insertions. M. transversospinalis capitis is depicted as reflected downwards to show epipophyses of several vertebrae, to which it would insert and/or posterior parts of M. complexus would originate. M. iliocostalis capitis is rendered as having individual slips that arose from heads of the cervical ribs, one interpretation of this muscle’s osteological origins. M. rectus capitis ventralis originates from the ventral surfaces of the anterior cervicals, and is restored here as passing medial to the anterior cervical ribs. The skull has been displaced slightly anteriorly, to compensate for an anteroposteriorly compressed C1 in this specimen.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734950
description: Figure 16. Schematic diagram of major neck muscles of Tyrannosaurus rex in dorsal view. A–C represent successively deeper layers, and other conventions are as in Figure 15. M. complexus inserts dorsally on the squamosal, and m. iliocostalis capitis inserts along the ventral edge of the paroccipital process. M. longissimus capitis superficialis inserts between these on the lateral edge of the paroccipital process. In C a probable lateral part of m. spinalis capitis is signified by a ‘? ’ .
type: Figure

zenodo.3734952
description: Figure 17. A, topological appearance of m. transversospinalis capitis on anterior vertebrae and skull of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). The insertion is inferred as strongly tendinous, and is rendered as white. B, topological appearance of m. longissimus capitis superficialis restored on the same skeleton. The posterior origin was tendinous, and its morphology is depicted as white. C, D, topological appearance of (C) m. complexus and (D) m. iliocostalis capitis on anterior axial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton (AMNH 5027). A′–D′, functional inference strengths of muscles after visualization of inference space in Figure 2. A′, strength of functional inference for m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap. strong Level I′ inference of dorsiflexion). B′, weaker, Level II′ inference of lateroflexion in m. longissimus capitis superficialis. C′, D′, Level II′ strengths of functional inference for m. complexus (m. compl.) and m. iliocostalis capitis (m. il. cap.).
type: Figure

zenodo.3734964
description: Figure 23. A, topological appearance of m. rectus capitis ventralis (anterior muscles) and m. iliocostalis cervicis (posteroventrally originating muscles) on anterior axial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), ventral view. The moment arm for lateral flexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis is superimposed. B, m. r.c.v.: origins of m. rectus capitis ventralis from ventral spinous processes of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033) with arrow showing course of the muscle. m. il. cerv.: origin from ventral centra and insertions onto ventral fascia of cervical ribs of m. iliocostalis cervicis, with arrow showing course of the muscle. C, insertion of m. rectus capitis ventralis onto basioccipital of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), showing moment arms. Because the tyrannosaurid occiput slopes anteroventrally, the ventroflexion moment arm is somewhat longer than depicted in this view. D, strength of functional inference for head ventroflexion by m. rectus capitis ventralis in Tyrannosaurus rex. E, strength of functional inference for neck lateroflexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis of Tyrannosaurus rex.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734956
description: Figure 19. A, origins of m. transversospinalis capitis (C2–C9), m. complexus (C2–C5) and m. splenius capitis from C2 and possibly C3, of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). B, rugose scarring of m. transversospinalis capitis insertion on parietals of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5029). C, insertion of m. transversospinalis capitis onto parietals of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms for lateral and dorsiflexion. D, insertions and moment arms for m. complexus (two dorsal) and m. iliocostalis capitis (ventral) on occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored for clarity).
type: Figure

zenodo.3734958
description: Figure 20. A, origin scar of m. splenius capitis from C2 of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), in anterodorsal view. B, area of possible insertions of m. splenius capitis (medial part) on the occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms shown for dorsiflexion and lateroflexion. C, insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis onto posterior and dorsal surfaces of epipophyses, from C2 to C5. The most prominent insertion is a posteriorly concave scar on the C2 epipophysis. D, centres of rotation (white circles) and moment arms (lines) for insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis, on cervical vertebrae of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). Centres of rotation are estimated to be at positions similar to those Selbie, Thomson & Richmond (1993) determined for intervertebral flexion in cats.
type: Figure

zenodo.3734960
description: Figure 21. A, origin scars of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (C7–D1 parapophyses) and m. longissimus capitis profundus (C6–C3 parapophyses) of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). B, short moment arm of m. longissimus capitis superficialis for neck plus head dorsiflexion. C, paroccipital process insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis superficialis on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506). D, basioccipital insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis profundus on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the images are partly mirrored).
type: Figure

zenodo.3734962
description: Figure 22. A, origins and insertions of mm. intercristales (top, light-fill shapes), mm. intertransversarii (dark-fill shapes) and an interpretation of dorsal, rib head origins (large light-filled shapes) of m. iliocostalis capitis, of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). B, moment arms for lateroflexion by mm. intertransversarii on C6–C8 of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033, ventral view).
type: Figure

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